The use of cholinesterases in ecotoxicology

Cholinesterase (ChE) is one of the most employed biomakers in environmental analysis. Among ChEs, potentially the most significant in environmental terms is acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzymatic form that terminates the nerve impulse . Because of its physiological role, Ache has long been considered a highly specific biomarker for organisms exposed to anticholinesterasic agents, primarily agro-chemicals (organophosphate and carbamate pesticides). The effects of these pesticides depends upon their selective inhibition of AChE. Because large amounts of such pesticides are employed, it is plausible that they exert neurotoxic effects on some non-target species. Therefore, AChE is among the most valuable of diagnostic tools that can be used to verify exposure to such chemical agents. It is well known that assays are available for use quantifying AChE in multiple tissues of several test organisms. Enzymes other than AChE (e.g., butyrylcholinesterase and carboxylesterases) have also been used as putative markers for detecting the environmental presence of contaminating compounds. Researchers must use a step-by-step approach to identify the most prominent cholinesterasic form present in a given species, so that this form can be distinguished from others that may interfere with its use. Such fundamental work must be completed prior to using ChEs for any monitoring to assess for anticholinesterasic effects. Despite massive employment in environmental analysis, using ChE inhibition as an endpoint or effect criterion has been unsettled by the discovery the ChEs may interact in the environmental in previously unknown ways. Several chemicals, in addition to anticholinesterasic pesticides, are now known to inhibit ChE activity. Such chemical include detergents, metals, and certain organic compounds such as hydrocarbons. The situation is made worse, because the literature is contradictory as to the ability of such chemicals and elements to interact with ChEs. Some results indicate that ChE inhibition by metals, detergents , and complex mixtures do not or are unlikely to occur. These problems and contradictions are addressed in this review. It is purpose in this review to address the following practical issues related to the ChEs: 1. The situation and organisms in which ChEs have been employed as biomarkers in laboratory trials, and the need to fully characterize these enzymatic forms before they are used for environmental assessment purposes. 2. The ways in which ChEs have been used in field monitoring, and the potential for use of others complimentary markers to diagnose organophosphate exposure, and how drawbacks (such as the absence of reference values) can be overcome. 3. What requirements must be satisfied prior implementing the use of ChEs as biomarkers in species not yet studied. 4. How direct linkages have been established between ChE inhibition and effects from inhibition observed at higher levels of integration (e.g., behavioral changes and population effects, or others indices of ecological relevance). 5. The potential for ChE inhibition to be applied as an effective parameter of toxicity to detect for the environmental presence of compounds other than the organo-phosphate and carbamate pesticides, and the limitations associated therewith.