Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Trait and State Self-Esteem

Trait and State Self-Esteem

The term self-esteem is often used generically, to refer to how people feel about themselves. However, according to research, there are three distinct constructs that should not be used interchangeably (Brown & Marshall, 2006).

Need for Self-Esteem

Need for Self-Esteem

The human need for self-esteem has long intrigued psychologists, leading to the development of several theories that explore its evolutionary and functional significance. Among the most influential are the sociometer, hierometer, and terror management theories. Each offers a unique perspective on why people strive for self-worth and how it shapes behavior and social interaction.Sociometer TheoryAccording to sociometer theory, self-esteem functions as an internal gauge of social acceptance. It...

Sources of Self-Esteem III: Social Comparison

Sources of Self-Esteem III: Social Comparison

Social comparison plays a fundamental role in the evaluation of personal success and self-worth. Rather than assessing our achievements in isolation, we interpret their significance relative to personal goals and critically in comparison to the performance of others. A grade of B in a mathematics exam might elicit pride if one's expectation was a C, yet result in disappointment if an A was anticipated or if peers achieved superior results. These comparative evaluations illustrate how both...

Social Foundations of Self III: Self-Evaluation

Social Foundations of Self III: Self-Evaluation

Self-evaluation is the process by which individuals assess their abilities, behaviors, and characteristics based on feedback from others. Charles H. Cooley observed that a person’s self-perception is primarily influenced by how others see and judge them. He suggested that individuals form their identities based on their interpretations of others' reactions. As a result, social interactions play a crucial role in shaping self-esteem and personal identity. These external evaluations often blend...

The Sense of Self: Reflected Self-Appraisal and Social Comparison

The Sense of Self: Reflected Self-Appraisal and Social Comparison

According to Charles Cooley, we base our image on what we think other people see (Cooley 1902). We imagine how we must appear to others, then react to this speculation. We don certain clothes, prepare our hair in a particular manner, wear makeup, use cologne, and the like—all with the notion that our presentation of ourselves is going to affect how others perceive us. We expect a certain reaction, and, if lucky, we get the one we desire and feel good about it. But more than that, Cooley...

Understanding the Self

Understanding the Self

The self is a central aspect of human identity, encompassing an individual’s beliefs, emotions, perceptions, and experiences. It is a cognitive and psychological construct that enables individuals to interpret their traits and behaviors, influencing how they perceive themselves and interact with the world. While personality consists of stable and enduring characteristics, the self is shaped by self-perception and social experiences. This distinction highlights the dynamic nature of the self,...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

The Benefits of Prosocial Behavior for Mental and Physical Health: A Neuroscience Approach.

Current directions in psychological science·2026

Same author

Neural representations of the value of helping the family during adolescence.

Developmental cognitive neuroscience·2026

Same author

CREB gene regulation as a blood biomarker of neural sensitivity to social threat.

Brain, behavior, and immunity·2026

Same author

Feeling Needed and Useful and Psychological Well-Being in Early to Middle Adolescence.

Journal of adolescence·2026

Same author

Increases in inflammation are associated with decreased trust of racial out-group members.

Brain, behavior, and immunity·2025

Same author

Images of social support reminders, but not learned safety signals, reduce long-term fear.

Scientific reports·2025

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 3, 2026

Employing Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in a Resource Limited Environment to Establish Brain-Behavior Relationships

Employing Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in a Resource Limited Environment to Establish Brain-Behavior Relationships

Published on: April 20, 2022

The neural sociometer: brain mechanisms underlying state self-esteem.

Naomi I Eisenberger¹, Tristen K Inagaki, Keely A Muscatell

¹University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, USA. neisenbe@ucla.edu

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

|April 2, 2011

Summary

Humans may possess a "sociometer" that links social acceptance to self-esteem. Brain scans reveal that rejection activates regions associated with lower self-esteem, informing our understanding of self-perception.

More Related Videos

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Observing Virtual Social Interactions

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Observing Virtual Social Interactions

Published on: July 6, 2011

Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Published on: April 15, 2015

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 3, 2026

Employing Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in a Resource Limited Environment to Establish Brain-Behavior Relationships

Employing Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in a Resource Limited Environment to Establish Brain-Behavior Relationships

Published on: April 20, 2022

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Observing Virtual Social Interactions

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Observing Virtual Social Interactions

Published on: July 6, 2011

Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Published on: April 15, 2015

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Social Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology

Background:

Social connection is vital for human survival.
The
sociometer
theory proposes a mechanism linking social feedback to state self-esteem.
Neural correlates of social acceptance and rejection are not fully understood.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the neural underpinnings of the proposed
sociometer
mechanism.
To examine the association between brain activity in response to social feedback and changes in state self-esteem.
To explore the role of self-referential processing in modulating self-esteem following negative social feedback.

Main Methods:

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to measure brain activity.
Participants received social feedback (positive/negative words) from a confederate after an interview.
State self-esteem was assessed before and after the fMRI scan, and in response to feedback.

Main Results:

Increased activity in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and anterior insula (rejection-related regions) correlated with lower state self-esteem.
Enhanced activity in mentalizing regions was also associated with lower state self-esteem.
Greater medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) activity during negative feedback predicted a decrease in self-esteem from pre- to post-scan.

Conclusions:

Neural regions involved in processing rejection and social cognition are linked to fluctuations in state self-esteem.
Medial prefrontal cortex activity during negative feedback may reflect self-referential processing that impacts self-esteem.
These findings contribute to understanding the evolutionary origins and neural basis of self-feelings and social evaluation.