International means for protecting humans as ends in medicine

According to Kant human beings should use their humanity, whether in their own person or the person of any other, 'always at the same time as an end never simply as a means' (1786, p429). This has traditionally been broken down into an imperfect duty of virtue to promote both one's own ends and the ends of others as if they were one's own (the means by which perfection can be achieved) and the more narrow but perfect duty not to treat oneself and others as mere means. This article critically examines how the latter duty is interpreted and enforced in the health field, particularly via general and health specific international human rights instruments.