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Menopause

Menopause

Menopause, a natural biological process marking the end of a woman's fertility, typically occurs between the fifth and sixth decade of life. This phase is characterized by the exhaustion of the ovarian follicle pool, leading to less responsive ovaries despite the high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The consequential decrease in estrogen production results in symptoms like hot flashes, heavy sweating, headaches, hair loss, muscle pains, vaginal...

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH release.

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Updated: Jun 2, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

Published on: August 13, 2019

Treating menopausal symptoms with a tissue-selective estrogen complex.

Jeffrey P Levine¹

¹Department of Family Medicine & Community Health and Obstetrics, Gynecology, & Reproductive Sciences, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903-0019, USA. levinejp@umdnj.edu

Gender Medicine

|May 4, 2011

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

A new tissue-selective estrogen complex (TSEC) combining bazedoxifene (BZA) and conjugated estrogens (CEs) effectively treats menopause symptoms and prevents bone loss. This hormone therapy option shows a favorable safety profile in Phase III trials.

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Last Updated: Jun 2, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

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Published on: August 13, 2019

Ovariectomy and 17β-estradiol Replacement in Rats and Mice: A Visual Demonstration

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Published on: June 7, 2012

Area of Science:

Reproductive Endocrinology
Pharmacology
Bone Metabolism

Background:

Vasomotor symptoms and vulvar-vaginal atrophy are common menopause consequences, with limited FDA-approved treatments.
Current hormone therapies raise concerns regarding tolerability and safety profiles.
Need exists for menopause treatments with improved efficacy and safety, including bone and cardiovascular benefits.

Purpose of the Study:

To review Phase III clinical trial data for a novel tissue-selective estrogen complex (TSEC) combining bazedoxifene (BZA) and conjugated estrogens (CEs).
To evaluate the efficacy and safety of BZA/CE in managing menopausal symptoms and preventing postmenopausal bone loss.

Main Methods:

Review of published Phase III clinical trial reports for BZA/CE.
Analysis of data on symptom relief, bone mineral density, and safety endpoints (endometrial, breast, cardiovascular).
Inclusion of data from the largest (N=3397) and longest (2 years) study of this TSEC.

Main Results:

BZA/CE demonstrated significant alleviation of menopausal vasomotor and vulvar-vaginal symptoms.
The treatment effectively prevented postmenopausal bone loss, particularly at the lumbar spine.
Safety profile showed amenorrhea and breast pain rates similar to placebo, with no endometrial stimulation.
Endometrial hyperplasia rates were comparable to placebo in long-term studies with adequate BZA dosage.

Conclusions:

The TSEC comprising BZA/CE presents a promising new therapeutic option for managing menopause symptoms.
The combination therapy shows efficacy in symptom relief and bone preservation with a generally favorable safety profile.
Further long-term studies are needed to establish cardiovascular and breast safety.