Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jun 2, 2026
06:53
Creating Virtual-hand and Virtual-face Illusions to Investigate Self-representation
Published on: March 1, 2017
The rubber hand illusion in a mirror
Marco Bertamini1, Nausicaa Berselli, Carole Bode
1School of Psychology, University of Liverpool, UK. m.bertamini@liv.ac.uk
Consciousness and Cognition
|May 4, 2011
Summary
The rubber hand illusion (RHI) occurs even when the fake hand is viewed indirectly in a mirror. Awareness of the reflection, not direct sight, is key to experiencing the illusion.
Area of Science:
- Neuroscience
- Psychology
- Body ownership illusions
Background:
- The rubber hand illusion (RHI) demonstrates how the brain integrates multisensory information to create a sense of body ownership.
- Typically, the RHI involves direct visual contact with a synchronously stimulated fake hand.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate if the RHI can be induced when visual information of the fake hand is perceived indirectly via a mirror.
- To determine the critical factors for experiencing the RHI under indirect viewing conditions.
Main Methods:
- Comparison of the standard RHI condition (direct view) with a mirror condition (indirect view).
- Synchronous tactile stimulation of the participant's hidden hand and the visible fake hand (or its reflection).
- Measurement of the illusion's strength using cross-manual pointing tasks and questionnaires.
Main Results:
- No significant reduction in the RHI was observed when the fake hand was viewed in a mirror compared to direct viewing.
- The illusion persisted even when a smaller mirror excluded facial visibility.
- The RHI was abolished when the fake hand was replaced by a non-human object or a hand belonging to another person.
Conclusions:
- Awareness of the reflection, rather than direct visual localization or perspective, is the critical factor for the rubber hand illusion.
- Visual stimuli perceived in a mirror activate similar neural responses as stimuli in peripersonal space, suggesting a unified representation of near-body space.
Related Concept Videos
01:13Nonconscious Mimicry
Nonconscious mimicry occurs when individuals alter their mannerisms to match the behaviors and expressions of those nearby, without intention.
01:28The Looking Glass Self
The concept of the looking-glass self describes how an individual's self-concept is shaped by their perception of how others see them. This psychological theory, first introduced by sociologist Charles Horton Cooley in 1902, posits that self-identity emerges in a social context and is influenced by the judgments—real or imagined—of others.Research suggests that individuals frequently overestimate how positively others perceive them. This is particularly evident in physical self-perception,...
02:05Self-Presentation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Handicapping
People can go to great lengths to protect their self-image and present themselves in ways that they want others to see them. Sociologist Erving Goffman presented the idea that a person is like an actor on a stage. Calling his theory dramaturgy, Goffman believed that we use “impression management” to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived. Each situation is a new scene, and individuals perform different roles depending on who is present (Goffman, 1959). Think about the way you...
01:29Impression Management Techniques I: Managing Appearances
Appearance is a multidimensional aspect of self-presentation that encompasses observable attributes such as clothing, grooming, speech, and nonverbal behavior. These elements are often strategically managed to align with socially constructed expectations in different settings. For instance, individuals tailor their appearance during job interviews, social gatherings, or athletic events to meet the perceived norms of those environments.Contextual Adaptation and Social SignalsThe research...
01:12Hindsight Biases
Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did. Can you relate this to the phrase "Hindsight is 20/20" now?
02:57The Sense of Self: Reflected Self-Appraisal and Social Comparison
According to Charles Cooley, we base our image on what we think other people see (Cooley 1902). We imagine how we must appear to others, then react to this speculation. We don certain clothes, prepare our hair in a particular manner, wear makeup, use cologne, and the like—all with the notion that our presentation of ourselves is going to affect how others perceive us. We expect a certain reaction, and, if lucky, we get the one we desire and feel good about it. But more than that, Cooley...