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Vision

Vision

Vision is the result of light being detected and transduced into neural signals by the retina of the eye. This information is then further analyzed and interpreted by the brain. First, light enters the front of the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens onto the retina—a thin sheet of neural tissue lining the back of the eye. Because of refraction through the convex lens of the eye, images are projected onto the retina upside-down and reversed.

Visual System

Visual System

Light enters the eye through the cornea, a transparent, dome-shaped surface covering the surface of the eyeball that helps to direct and focus incoming light. This light is then channeled toward the pupil, an adjustable opening whose size is controlled by the iris. The iris, a pigmented muscle, regulates the amount of light entering the eye by contracting or dilating the pupil, thereby ensuring optimal light levels for clear vision.
Once through the pupil, the light passes through the lens, a...

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

The cerebral cortex, the brain's outermost layer, is pivotal in processing complex cognitive tasks, emotions, and various sensory inputs and executing voluntary motor activities. This intricate structure is divided into three primary functional areas: the motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.
Motor Areas
The motor areas located in the frontal lobe are central to controlling voluntary movements. This region is further subdivided into the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex.

Parallel Processing

Parallel Processing

The brain processes sensory information rapidly due to parallel processing, which involves sending data across multiple neural pathways at the same time. This method allows the brain to manage various sensory qualities, such as shapes, colors, movements, and locations, all concurrently. For instance, when observing a forest landscape, the brain simultaneously processes the movement of leaves, the shapes of trees, the depth between them, and the various shades of green. This enables a quick and...

Somatosensory, Motor, and Association Cortex

Somatosensory, Motor, and Association Cortex

The somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobes is crucial for interpreting sensory data such as touch, temperature, and proprioception. The somatosensory cortex, situated in the parietal lobes, plays a vital role in interpreting sensory information like touch, temperature, and proprioception—awareness of body position. This specialized brain region features an organized structure wherein neurons at the top primarily process sensations originating from the lower body. In contrast, those at the...

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function. Instead, they integrate and interpret information from various sources to enable higher cognitive processes such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Some key association areas include the following:
Prefrontal Association Area: This area is located in the frontal lobe and is involved in planning, decision-making, and moderating social behavior. It connects with primary motor areas,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 2, 2026

Eye Tracking During Visually Situated Language Comprehension: Flexibility and Limitations in Uncovering Visual Context Effects

Eye Tracking During Visually Situated Language Comprehension: Flexibility and Limitations in Uncovering Visual Context Effects

Published on: November 30, 2018

The speed of context integration in the visual cortex.

Tadashi Sugihara¹, Fangtu T Qiu, Rüdiger von der Heydt

¹Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and Krieger Mind/Brain Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA.

Journal of Neurophysiology

|May 6, 2011

Summary

Visual cortex neurons integrate image context beyond their receptive fields. Context-dependent signals emerge ~30ms later than local edge signals, suggesting extrastriate feedback, not just horizontal fibers, mediates this integration.

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Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Visual Perception
Computational Neuroscience

Background:

Neurons in the visual cortex exhibit figure-ground selectivity, responding to image context beyond their classical receptive fields.
Understanding the mechanisms of context integration is crucial for comprehending visual processing.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the temporal dynamics of context integration in visual cortex neurons.
To differentiate between horizontal propagation and feedback mechanisms in mediating contextual influences.

Main Methods:

Recorded single-neuron activity in areas V1 and V2 of Macaca mulatta (macaque monkeys).
Compared latencies of local edge definition (contrast polarity, stereoscopic depth) with context-dependent border ownership signals.
Assessed signal latencies relative to cortical distance and compared with predictions from horizontal fiber propagation.

Main Results:

Local edge definition emerged rapidly (<13 ms) after edge onset.
Context-dependent border ownership signals were delayed (~30 ms) relative to local edge definition.
Measured latency increases with cortical distance but significantly less than predicted by horizontal propagation, making it an unlikely sole explanation.

Conclusions:

Horizontal propagation alone is insufficient to explain the observed context integration latencies.
Feedback mechanisms involving extrastriate areas are plausible explanations for context-dependent visual processing.