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DefinitionComputed Tomography (CT) of the genitourinary (GU) tract is a non-invasive imaging modality that utilizes X-rays and computer processing to generate detailed cross-sectional images of the urinary system, encompassing the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and adjacent structures such as the adrenal glands.PurposeCT scans of the GU tract serve several diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, including:Diagnosis of Urinary Tract Diseases: Detects kidney stones, tumors, cysts, and congenital...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 2, 2026

Three-Dimensional Cephalometric Landmark Annotation Demonstration on Human Cone Beam Computed Tomography Scans

Three-Dimensional Cephalometric Landmark Annotation Demonstration on Human Cone Beam Computed Tomography Scans

Published on: September 8, 2023

Repeatability and reproducibility of landmarks--a three-dimensional computed tomography study.

Irem Titiz¹, Michala Laubinger, Thomas Keller

¹Department of Orthodontics, University Dental School of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany.

European Journal of Orthodontics

|May 14, 2011

Summary

This study found that placing anthropological landmarks on 3D CT scans is repeatable and reproducible for most anatomical positions. Observer experience did not significantly impact the accuracy of landmark placement in cephalometric analysis.

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Last Updated: Jun 2, 2026

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Four-Dimensional CT Analysis Using Sequential 3D-3D Registration

Four-Dimensional CT Analysis Using Sequential 3D-3D Registration

Published on: November 23, 2019

Area of Science:

Dentistry
Medical Imaging
Orthodontics

Background:

Anthropological cephalometric landmark identification is crucial for diagnosing and treating craniofacial abnormalities.
Three-dimensional computed tomography (3D CT) offers advanced visualization of cranial structures.
Assessing the reliability of landmark placement on 3D CT reconstructions is essential for clinical application.

Purpose of the Study:

To evaluate the repeatability and reproducibility of cephalometric landmark placement on 3D CT cranial reconstructions.
To investigate the impact of observer experience on landmark placement accuracy.

Main Methods:

Retrospective analysis of 3D CT data from 20 patients without craniofacial deformities.
Placement of 28 cephalometric landmarks using VoXim6.1 software by four observers (two orthodontists, two postgraduate students).
Intraobserver and interobserver reliability assessed using analysis of variance, calculating standard deviations (SD).

Main Results:

Median intraserial SD was 0.46 mm and interserial SD was 0.20 mm, indicating good repeatability and reproducibility for most landmarks.
Landmarks such as nasion and infradentale showed minimal SD across spatial coordinates.
No systematic influence of observer experience on landmark placement repeatability was detected.

Conclusions:

The placement of anthropological landmarks on 3D CT reconstructions demonstrates acceptable repeatability and reproducibility for a majority of anatomical positions.
3D CT is a reliable tool for cephalometric landmark identification in orthodontic and craniofacial analyses.
Further studies may explore specific landmark challenges and refine protocols for optimal accuracy.