Hydroxychloroquine: a diabetic drug in disguise?

Biguanides, particularly metformin (Glucophage), are insulin sensitizers that enhance glucose uptake, thereby reducing insulin resistance. Unlike sulfonylureas, metformin doesn't prompt insulin secretion, which helps to curb hypoglycemia risk. Metformin is beneficial in treating conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome due to its insulin-resistance reduction capability. The drug's primary action involves curtailing hepatic gluconeogenesis, a significant contributor to high blood glucose levels...

Thiazide diuretics are sulfonamide derivatives featuring a benzothiadiazine ring system in their molecular structure. Based on this structure, thiazide diuretics can be categorized into two groups: thiazide-type and thiazide-like diuretics. Thiazide-type diuretics, including hydrochlorothiazide and chlorothiazide, consist of a benzothiadiazine backbone with an attached sulfonamide group. Thiazide-like diuretics, such as chlorthalidone and indapamide, lack the thiazide ring but demonstrate...

α-glucosidase inhibitors, including acarbose (Precose), miglitol (Glyset), and voglibose (Voglib) (primarily available in Asia), are drugs that control blood sugar levels by delaying the digestion of starch and disaccharides. They achieve this by inhibiting α-glucosidase enzymes in the intestine, which slow the absorption of carbohydrates in the intestine, which in turn leads to a prolonged release of the glucoregulatory hormone GLP-1 from intestinal L-cells.
Acarbose and miglitol are typically...

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) is a serine protease widely distributed in the body. It's involved in the inactivation of GLP-1 and GIP hormones, which are crucial for insulin regulation. DPP-4 inhibitors, such as sitagliptin (Januvia), saxagliptin (Onglyza), linagliptin (Tradjenta), alogliptin (Nesina), and vildagliptin (Galvus), help increase the proportion of active GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion. These inhibitors work by competitively binding to DPP-4. This binding causes a significant...

Hyperglycemia is an abnormally high blood glucose level. It is diagnosed by fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL, 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test (or OGTT) ≥200 mg/dL, random glucose ≥200 mg/dL with symptoms, or HbA1c ≥6.5%. However, HbA1c results may be unreliable in certain conditions, such as anemia or hemoglobinopathies, and the diagnosis should be confirmed unless classic symptoms are present. Postprandial hyperglycemia is typically considered significant when glucose levels exceed 180 mg/dL two...

DefinitionDiabetic retinopathy is a microvascular complication of diabetes affecting the retinal blood vessels.Risk FactorsDiabetic retinopathy is present in almost all individuals with type 1 diabetes and more than 60% of those with type 2 diabetes after two decades of disease.The risk increases with poor glycemic control, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking, pregnancy, and puberty.Although cataracts and glaucoma are also more frequent in people with diabetes, retinopathy remains the leading...