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Cellular Injury V: Apoptosis and Autophagy

Cellular Injury V: Apoptosis and Autophagy

Cells respond to damage and stress through highly coordinated processes that decide whether they survive or undergo controlled self-destruction. Two major pathways involved in this regulation are apoptosis, a type of programmed cell death, and autophagy, a survival mechanism that helps cells adapt to adverse conditions.ApoptosisApoptosis removes aged or injured cells to maintain tissue balance. During this process, the cell shrinks, chromatin condenses and fragments, and membrane-bound...

Caspases

Caspases

Caspase, a family of cysteine proteases, serve as effectors in apoptosis. The ced3 gene in C.elegans was first identified to be involved in apoptosis. This gene encodes the ced-3 caspase that is similar to the interleukin-1-beta converting enzyme or ICE in mammals. In addition to apoptosis, caspases also function in the inflammatory response. Inflammatory caspases are essential in activating pro-inflammatory cytokines that recruit immune cells and block the replication of pathogens inside cells.

The Intrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

The Intrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

Internal cellular stress, such as cellular injury or hypoxia, triggers intrinsic apoptosis. The B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family of proteins are the primary regulators of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. For example, during DNA damage, checkpoint proteins, such as Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM protein) and Checkpoints Factor-2 (Chk2) proteins, are activated. These proteins phosphorylate p53 which further activates pro-apoptotic proteins, such as Bax, Bak, PUMA, and Noxa, and inhibits...

Phagocytosis of Apoptotic Cells

Phagocytosis of Apoptotic Cells

Cells undergoing apoptosis form apoptotic bodies that must be removed immediately to prevent inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and necrosis. Phagocytosis is carried out by professional phagocytes such as macrophages or immature dendritic cells. Non-professional phagocytes such as epithelial cells and fibroblasts also take part in this process; however, they are not as effective as professional phagocytes.
Normal cells contain receptors that prevent them from being recognized by phagocytes.

The Extrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

The Extrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

The extrinsic apoptotic pathway is initiated when extracellular death-inducing signals, such as specific cytokines, activate the death receptors expressed on the cell surface. The immune cells involved in this pathway are natural killer cells (NK cells) and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. NK cells are critical in innate immune response, while cytotoxic T-lymphocytes are associated with adaptive immune response. These cells recognize specific receptors expressed on the altered cells and activate...

Apoptosis

Apoptosis

Apoptosis is a combination of two Greek words, 'apo' and 'ptosis,' meaning separation and falling off, respectively. Hippocrates used this word to describe gangrene, which was caused due to bandaging of fractured bones. Apoptosis was distinguished from necrosis in 1970 when John Kerr reported observations of morphological changes occurring during apoptosis. During one experiment, he observed that the disruption of blood supply to the liver tissue resulted in a size reduction of the tissue.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 31, 2026

Identification of Intracellular Signaling Events Induced in Viable Cells by Interaction with Neighboring Cells Undergoing Apoptotic Cell Death

Identification of Intracellular Signaling Events Induced in Viable Cells by Interaction with Neighboring Cells Undergoing Apoptotic Cell Death

Published on: December 27, 2016

Mast cell apoptosis and survival.

Maria Ekoff¹, Gunnar Nilsson

¹Clinical Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

|June 30, 2011

Summary

Mast cells, key immune cells, are regulated by Bcl-2 family proteins impacting survival and apoptosis. Understanding these mechanisms can lead to new treatments for inflammatory diseases and mastocytosis.

Area of Science:

Immunology
Cell Biology
Molecular Biology

Background:

Mast cells are strategically positioned at the host-environment interface and play crucial roles in immune responses.
Their accumulation and activation contribute to the initiation and perpetuation of inflammation in various acute and chronic conditions.
Recent research has elucidated regulatory pathways governing mast cell survival, explaining their increased numbers during inflammatory reactions like allergic responses.

Purpose of the Study:

To discuss the regulation of mast cell apoptosis and survival.
To explore the role of the Bcl-2 family of proteins in controlling mast cell fate.
To identify potential therapeutic targets for mast cell-related disorders.

Main Methods:

Review of regulatory pathways for mast cell survival.

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Published on: May 27, 2015

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Identification of Intracellular Signaling Events Induced in Viable Cells by Interaction with Neighboring Cells Undergoing Apoptotic Cell Death

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Published on: December 27, 2016

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

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Published on: June 29, 2011

Analyzing the Functions of Mast Cells In Vivo Using 'Mast Cell Knock-in' Mice

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Analysis of the Bcl-2 protein family's role in apoptosis and cell survival.

Discussion of protein-protein interactions determining cellular fate.

Main Results:

The Bcl-2 family, comprising pro- and anti-apoptotic members, critically determines mast cell survival.
The balance between Bcl-2 family members dictates whether mast cells undergo apoptosis or survive.
Understanding these regulatory mechanisms provides insight into mast cell behavior during inflammation.

Conclusions:

The Bcl-2 family of proteins is a key regulator of mast cell apoptosis and survival.
Identifying key proteins in these pathways can help determine inflammation severity.
This knowledge may facilitate the development of novel treatments for mastocytosis and other inflammatory diseases involving mast cells.