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Heart Failure II: Pathophysiology01:29

Heart Failure II: Pathophysiology

Systolic Heart Failure and Compensatory MechanismsSystolic heart failure (also termed HFrEF, Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction) is the most prevalent type of heart filure. It results in a decreased volume of blood being pumped from the ventricle. The aortic arch and carotid sinuses have baroreceptors that detect reduced blood pressure, triggering the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) to release epinephrine and norepinephrine. Initially, this response aims to boost heart rate and...
Pathophysiology of Heart Failure01:17

Pathophysiology of Heart Failure

Heart failure (HF) is a progressive syndrome involving ventricles that leads to inadequate cardiac output. It can be classified based on location and output or ejection fraction. Ejection fraction (EF) is an essential measurement in the diagnosis and surveillance of HF. Reduced EF corresponds to systolic heart failure (HFrEF). However, HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is becoming increasingly prevalent. Also known as diastolic HF, this form of HF is related to aging. The...
Skeleton and Calcium Homeostasis01:21

Skeleton and Calcium Homeostasis

Calcium is not only the most abundant mineral in bone but also the most abundant mineral in the human body. Calcium ions are needed for bone mineralization, tooth health, heart rate regulation and strength of contraction, blood coagulation, the contraction of smooth and skeletal muscle cells, and the regulation of nerve impulse conduction. The average calcium level in the blood is about 10 mg/dL. When the body cannot maintain this level, a person will experience hypo or hypercalcemia.
Heart Failure Drugs: Diuretics01:22

Heart Failure Drugs: Diuretics

Heart failure and kidney perfusion are interconnected in a complex way. Reduced renal perfusion and venous congestion are two significant factors that contribute to renal dysfunction in heart failure. The kidneys, primarily responsible for fluid balance in the body, are adversely affected due to compromised cardiac output and increased venous pressure. In response to reduced renal perfusion, the kidneys activate neurohumoral mechanisms to restore balance. However, these mechanisms can be...
Imbalances in Cardiac Output01:26

Imbalances in Cardiac Output

The heart's primary function is to pump blood throughout the body, maintaining a balance between blood sent out (cardiac output) and blood returning (venous return). If this balance is disrupted, it can result in congestive heart failure (CHF), a severe condition where the heart becomes an inefficient pump, leading to inadequate blood circulation.
CHF can occur due to the failure of either side of the heart. Left-side failure leads to pulmonary congestion—the right side continues to send blood...
Antihypertensive Drugs: Action of Calcium Channel Blockers01:18

Antihypertensive Drugs: Action of Calcium Channel Blockers

Calcium ions are essential to contract smooth muscle cells in blood vessels. They enter these cells through voltage-dependent calcium channels, specifically L-type calcium channels in the cell membrane. These L-type calcium channels are integral to the excitation-contraction coupling process in smooth muscle. When a stimulus is received by smooth muscle cells, their membrane depolarizes. This alteration in membrane potential instigates the opening of L-type calcium channels. As a result,...