Upstream processing represents a critical phase in biomanufacturing, wherein biological systems such as microorganisms, mammalian cells, or insect cells are cultivated to produce therapeutic proteins, vaccines, enzymes, or other biologically derived products. This phase encompasses all steps from the selection and genetic manipulation of the production organism to the cultivation of cells in bioreactors under tightly controlled environmental conditions.Host Selection and Genetic OptimizationThe...

The cardiovascular system's chief role is to disseminate gases, nutrients, waste, and other substances to the body's cells. Small molecules like gases, lipids, and lipid-soluble substances directly diffuse through capillary wall endothelial cell membranes. Glucose, amino acids, and ions, including sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride, use transporters for facilitated diffusion via membrane-specific channels. Glucose, ions, and bigger molecules may also pass through intercellular clefts.

Cellular respiration produces 30 - 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Although most of the ATP results from oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain (ETC), 4 ATP are gained beforehand (2 from glycolysis and 2 from the citric acid cycle).
The ETC is embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane and is comprised of four main protein complexes and an ATP synthase. NADH and FADH2 pass electrons to these complexes, which pump protons into the intermembrane space. This distribution of...

Downstream processing begins once fermentation is complete and involves a series of steps to recover and purify products such as acids, vitamins, antibiotics, or proteins.Cell HarvestingFor example, for intracellular protein-based products, the first step is harvesting the cells. This is typically achieved using centrifugation or filtration to separate the cells from the liquid phase.Cell Disruption for Intracellular ProductsIf the target product is intracellular, the harvested cells must be...

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of the momentum of an object is the net external force acting on it. The total change in momentum between two timepoints thus depends on both the external force acting on it and the time over which it acts. Describing this mathematically, the total change of an object’s motion is proportional to the force vector and the time over which it is applied. This product is called impulse.
Additionally, it can be shown that the total...

Underflow gates are vital for controlling water flow in irrigation canals. The three main types of underflow gates — vertical, radial, and drum gates — serve different purposes while ensuring effective flow management. Vertical gates move up and down, generating a free-flowing water jet; radial gates pivot to regulate the flow; and drum gates rotate for precise adjustments. The flow through these gates is influenced by downstream conditions, resulting in free or drowned outflow.Free and Drowned...