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Related Concept Videos

Parenteral Anesthetics: Overview01:24

Parenteral Anesthetics: Overview

Intravenous anesthetics are drugs administered parenterally to induce anesthesia or sedation. Propofol is a widely used agent formulated as a 1% emulsion in soybean oil, glycerol, and egg phosphatide. It induces rapid anesthesia primarily due to its rapid distribution from the bloodstream to target tissues and is metabolized in the liver. However, it can cause significant pain on injection and hypertriglyceridemia. Fospropofol, a water-based prodrug of propofol, lacks these adverse effects.
Inhalational Anesthetics: Overview01:20

Inhalational Anesthetics: Overview

Inhalation anesthetics are drugs that induce general anesthesia upon inhalation. They work by increasing the sensitivity of GABAA receptors or inhibiting NMDA receptors, leading to a decrease in central nervous system activity. The depth of anesthesia can be rapidly adjusted by changing the concentration of the inhaled gas. Some common examples of inhalational anesthetics include volatile liquids like isoflurane, desflurane, sevoflurane and gases like xenon and nitrous oxide. Isoflurane, a...
Sedatives and Hypnotics Drugs: Miscellaneous Agents01:17

Sedatives and Hypnotics Drugs: Miscellaneous Agents

Sedatives and hypnotics encompass a wide range of substances, each with its unique mechanism of action, uses, and potential adverse effects.
Melatonin congeners like ramelteon (Rozerem) and tasimelteon (Hetlioz) selectively bind to melatonin receptors (MT1 and MT2) and thus mimic the actions of melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles. Tasimelteon is primarily used for non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder, common in blind patients. They are also used to treat conditions like insomnia...
Sedatives and Hypnotics: Overview01:23

Sedatives and Hypnotics: Overview

Sedatives are drugs that alleviate anxiety, while hypnotics induce sleep. Both classes of medication suppress neuronal activity, leading to a calming effect for sedatives and facilitating sleep for hypnotics.
Sedative-hypnotics are categorized into barbiturates, benzodiazepines (BZDs), and non-benzodiazepines or Z-drugs. These drugs work by suppressing central nervous system activity, and this suppression is dose-dependent. Older sedative medications, like barbiturates, follow a linear curve in...
Local Anesthetics: Clinical Application as Epidural Anesthesia01:29

Local Anesthetics: Clinical Application as Epidural Anesthesia

Epidural anesthetics are administered in the fat-filled epidural space, the outermost part of the spinal canal. This technique is commonly employed for pain management and anesthesia during lower abdomen and pelvis surgeries or labor and delivery.
Since epidural anesthetics can be infused through an epidural catheter, all types of drugs, including short-acting ones, can be administered. Chloroprocaine and lidocaine are examples of short and long-duration anesthetics, respectively. Bupivacaine...
Local Anesthetics: Clinical Application as Intravenous Regional Anesthesia01:16

Local Anesthetics: Clinical Application as Intravenous Regional Anesthesia

Intravenous regional anesthesia or the Bier block technique is used to anesthetize a specific limb or extremity. It uses exsanguinated or blood-drained vessels to transport local anesthetics or LAs to the peripheral nerve trunks. Lidocaine without vasoconstrictors like epinephrine is most commonly used for this technique. Other drugs used are prilocaine, ropivacaine, and chloroprocaine. Bupivacaine is not recommended for this technique due to its high cardiac toxicity.
One of the advantages of...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 30, 2026

Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning: A Neuroprotective Technique in Rodents
07:52

Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning: A Neuroprotective Technique in Rodents

Published on: June 2, 2015

Ketamine use: a review.

Celia J A Morgan1, H Valerie Curran,

  • 1Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Clinical Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK.

Addiction (Abingdon, England)
|July 23, 2011
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Repeated ketamine misuse causes significant physical harms like ulcerative cystitis and psychological issues including memory deficits and addiction. Early intervention and harm reduction strategies are crucial for managing these adverse effects.

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Last Updated: May 30, 2026

Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning: A Neuroprotective Technique in Rodents
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Recording Brain Electromagnetic Activity During the Administration of the Gaseous Anesthetic Agents Xenon and Nitrous Oxide in Healthy Volunteers
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Recording Brain Electromagnetic Activity During the Administration of the Gaseous Anesthetic Agents Xenon and Nitrous Oxide in Healthy Volunteers

Published on: January 13, 2018

Area of Science:

  • Pharmacology
  • Neuroscience
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Ketamine is a vital anesthetic and pain management drug.
  • Recreational ketamine use has increased globally, raising concerns about its adverse effects.
  • Research is needed to understand the physical, psychological, and social harms of ketamine misuse.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review and synthesize existing research on the harms associated with both acute and chronic ketamine use.
  • To classify ketamine-related harms using a standardized framework for assessing psychoactive substance risks.
  • To inform prevention and treatment strategies for ketamine misuse.

Main Methods:

  • Systematic literature search on ketamine.
  • Classification of findings using Nutt et al.'s (2007) rational scale for psychoactive substance harms.

Main Results:

  • Chronic, frequent ketamine use is linked to ketamine-induced ulcerative cystitis.
  • Neurocognitive impairment, particularly deficits in working and episodic memory, is associated with frequent ketamine use.
  • Neurological abnormalities may underlie cognitive deficits, and many users struggle with addiction and cessation.

Conclusions:

  • Coordinated treatment involving urologists and addiction specialists is necessary for ketamine-induced ulcerative cystitis.
  • Neurocognitive impairment negatively affects education, work, and addiction recovery.
  • Public health campaigns are essential to raise awareness about ketamine's harmful and chronic effects, especially among young people.