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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...

Fractures: Bone Repair

Fractures: Bone Repair

Treatment for a fracture is based on the type of break, the bone affected, and the patient's age.
Minor fractures with no bone displacement are treated by immobilizing the fractured bone using a cast or splint. However, in the case of fractures with displaced bones, the broken bones are repositioned before immobilization to ensure successful healing without deformation and loss of function. The realignment of fractured bone ends is performed through a process called reduction. If the procedure...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side of the...

Bones of the Lower Limb: Femur and Patella

Bones of the Lower Limb: Femur and Patella

The femur is the body's longest and strongest bone spanning the thigh region. Its head articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint. A minor indentation on the medial side of the femoral head, called the fovea capitis, serves as the site of attachment for the ligament of the head of the femur. This weak ligament spans the femur and acetabulum and supports the hip joint. The narrowed region below the head is the neck of the femur. The inclination angle between the neck...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
The radius has a nail-shaped head, and a short...

Muscles that Move the Forearm

Muscles that Move the Forearm

The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
Forearm Flexors
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis are forearm flexors. The biceps brachii is made up of two heads. Its long head originates at the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, whereas that of the short head is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 30, 2026

Development of a Novel Internal Fixation Model for Rat Radial Fractures: Fracture Healing Assessment and Dorsal Root Ganglion Isolation

Development of a Novel Internal Fixation Model for Rat Radial Fractures: Fracture Healing Assessment and Dorsal Root Ganglion Isolation

Published on: March 13, 2026

Proximal humeral fractures.

Craig S Mauro¹

¹Burke and Bradley Orthopedics, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC St. Margaret 200 Delafield Rd. Suite 4010, Pittsburgh, PA, 15215, USA, maurocs@upmc.edu.

Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine

|August 3, 2011

Summary

Proximal humeral fractures require careful assessment of fracture patterns and patient factors. Treatment options range from non-operative care to surgical reconstruction for optimal outcomes.

Area of Science:

Orthopedic Surgery
Traumatology

Background:

Proximal humeral fractures present diverse configurations and patient co-morbidities.
Optimal management necessitates understanding fracture patterns, bone quality, and patient factors.

Purpose of the Study:

To review current literature on proximal humeral fracture classification and treatment.
To guide physicians in selecting the most appropriate treatment for individual patients.

Main Methods:

Literature review of proximal humeral fracture classification and treatment options.
Analysis of non-operative, surgical fixation, and arthroplasty reconstruction techniques.

Main Results:

Treatment varies from physical therapy to percutaneous fixation, open reduction, and arthroplasty.

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Imaging of the Microstructural Failure Mechanism in the Human Hip

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Last Updated: May 30, 2026

Development of a Novel Internal Fixation Model for Rat Radial Fractures: Fracture Healing Assessment and Dorsal Root Ganglion Isolation

Development of a Novel Internal Fixation Model for Rat Radial Fractures: Fracture Healing Assessment and Dorsal Root Ganglion Isolation

Published on: March 13, 2026

Imaging of the Microstructural Failure Mechanism in the Human Hip

Imaging of the Microstructural Failure Mechanism in the Human Hip

Published on: September 29, 2023

Individualized treatment plans are crucial for minimizing complications and maximizing functional outcomes.

Conclusions:

A comprehensive understanding of fracture patterns and patient factors is essential for effective management.
Selecting the appropriate treatment strategy, from conservative to reconstructive, is key to achieving optimal patient outcomes.