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Fates of Pyruvate

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Pyruvate is the end product of glycolysis, where glucose is oxidized to pyruvate, simultaneously reducing NAD+ to NADH. Two molecules of ATP are also produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.
In aerobic organisms, pyruvate is metabolized via the citric acid cycle to produce reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2. These coenzymes are then oxidized in the electron transport chain to produce ATP and, in the process, regenerate the NAD+ and FAD. As seen in some cell types and organisms, fermentation...

Fermentation

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Most eukaryotic organisms require oxygen to survive and function adequately. Such organisms produce large amounts of energy during aerobic respiration by metabolizing glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water. However, most eukaryotes can generate some energy in the absence of oxygen by anaerobic metabolism.
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Glycolysis

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Glycolysis, the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, is a central metabolic pathway involved in glucose catabolism. It is highly conserved across most organisms, reflecting its fundamental role in cellular energy production. This process occurs in the cytoplasm and can function both in the presence and absence of oxygen, making it versatile for various organisms and environmental conditions.Stages of GlycolysisGlycolysis is a ten-step pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a net gain of...

Other Glycolytic Pathways

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The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) operates in parallel with glycolysis, facilitating the metabolism of both pentoses and glucose. This pathway consists of two distinct phases: the oxidative and non-oxidative phases. While it does not directly generate ATP, the intermediates formed during the process can integrate into glycolysis, contributing to cellular energy metabolism when required.Oxidative Phase: NADPH ProductionThe oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway is primarily...

What is Glycolysis?

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Overview
Cells make energy by breaking down macromolecules. Cellular respiration is the biochemical process that converts "food energy" (from the chemical bonds of macromolecules) into chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The first step of this tightly regulated and intricate process is glycolysis. The word glycolysis originates from the Latin glyco (sugar) and lysis (breakdown). Glycolysis serves two main intracellular functions: generating ATP and generating...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 30, 2026

Protocol for the Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Mixed Cultures of Neurons and Glia for Neurotoxicity Testing

Protocol for the Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Mixed Cultures of Neurons and Glia for Neurotoxicity Testing

Published on: June 9, 2017

Neuronal differentiation involves a shift from glucose oxidation to fermentation.

Maynara Fornazari¹, Isis C Nascimento, Arthur A Nery

¹Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 748, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.

Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes

|August 12, 2011

Summary

Neuronal differentiation shifts glucose metabolism from oxidative to fermentative pathways. This process does not require oxidative phosphorylation, challenging previous assumptions about brain energy demands during development.

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Neuronal Differentiation from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells In vitro

Neuronal Differentiation from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells In vitro

Published on: June 2, 2020

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Cell Biology
Developmental Biology

Background:

The adult brain has high glucose demands, but metabolic changes during neuronal differentiation are poorly understood.
Neuronal differentiation is an energetically demanding process requiring investigation into its metabolic underpinnings.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate alterations in glucose metabolism during neuronal differentiation.
To determine the role of oxidative metabolism in neurogenesis.

Main Methods:

Studied glucose metabolism during neuronal differentiation of P19 and E14Tg2A cells.
Analyzed brain development in BLC57 mice.
Assessed mitochondrial enzymatic activities and mitochondrial uncoupling.
Utilized oligomycin to inhibit ATP synthase.

Main Results:

Neurogenesis is associated with a shift from oxidative to fermentative glucose metabolism.
Observed decreased mitochondrial enzymatic activities and mitochondrial uncoupling during differentiation.
Neuronal differentiation proceeded even when oxidative metabolism was inhibited by oligomycin.

Conclusions:

Neuronal differentiation involves a metabolic shift towards fermentation.
Oxidative phosphorylation is not essential for neuronal differentiation.