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Echo01:06

Echo

The human ear cannot distinguish between two sources of sound if they happen to reach within a specific time interval, typically 0.1 seconds apart. More than this, and they are perceived as separate sources.
Imagine the sound is reflected back to the ears. Assuming that the source is very close to the human, the difference between hearing the two sounds—the emitted sound and the reflected sound—may be more than the minimum time for perceiving distinct sounds. If this is the case, then the...
Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid01:09

Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid

As with waves on a string, the speed of sound or a mechanical wave in a fluid depends on the fluid's elastic modulus and inertia. The two relevant physical quantities are the bulk modulus and the density of the material. Indeed, it turns out that the relationship between speed and the bulk modulus and density in fluids is the same as that between the speed and the Young's modulus and density in solids.
The speed of sound in fluids can be derived by considering a mechanical wave propagating...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 29, 2026

A Stable Phantom Material for Optical and Acoustic Imaging
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On observing acoustic backscattering from salinity turbulence.

Louis Goodman1, Marcos M Sastre-Cordova

  • 1University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, School for Marine Science and Technology, New Bedford, MA 02744-1221, USA. lgoodman@umassd.edu

The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
|September 1, 2011
PubMed
Summary

High oceanic salinity turbulence can cause acoustic backscattering. In situ measurements using autonomous underwater vehicles confirmed this phenomenon, with approximately 50% of the studied region showing salinity turbulence-induced acoustic backscattering.

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Area of Science:

  • Oceanography
  • Acoustics
  • Fluid Dynamics

Background:

  • Acoustic backscattering from oceanic salinity turbulence has been hypothesized but lacked in situ validation.
  • Previous research highlighted the theoretical possibility of acoustic signals reflecting off small-scale salinity variations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide in situ measurements confirming acoustic backscattering from oceanic salinity turbulence.
  • To quantify the extent of salinity turbulence-induced acoustic backscattering in a specific oceanic region.

Main Methods:

  • Deployed an autonomous underwater vehicle equipped with acoustic Doppler current profilers and turbulence sensors.
  • Measured acoustic backscatter intensity and correlated it with salinity turbulence parameters.
  • Calculated an estimated scattering cross section per volume for salinity turbulence.

Main Results:

  • Observed acoustic backscattering in a region with intense turbulence and strong salinity gradients.
  • Correlated variations in acoustic backscatter intensity with theoretical salinity turbulence models.
  • Estimated that approximately 50% of the surveyed area exhibited acoustic backscattering attributable to salinity turbulence.

Conclusions:

  • In situ measurements confirm that high levels of oceanic salinity turbulence can generate detectable acoustic backscattering.
  • Salinity turbulence is a significant contributor to acoustic backscattering in certain oceanic environments.
  • The study provides empirical evidence supporting the hypothesis of acoustic backscattering from salinity-driven turbulence.