Multifunctional drugs as novel antidotes for organophosphates' poisoning

Some organophosphorus compounds (OPs) are nerve agents that continue to concern military personnel and civilians as potential battlefield and terrorist threats. Additionally, OPs are used in agriculture where they are associated with numerous cases of intentional and accidental misuse. These toxicants induce an array of deleterious effects including respiratory distress, convulsions and ultimately death. A mechanism involving a rapid and potent inhibition of peripheral and central cholinesterases leading to a massive buildup of acetylcholine in synaptic clefts was suggested as the underlying trigger of the toxic events. Indeed, therapy comprised of an acetylcholinesterase reactivator (i.e., oxime) and a cholinergic antagonist (e.g., atropine) is the accepted major paradigm for protection. This approach yields a remarkable survival rate but fails to prevent neurological and behavioral deficits. Extensive research revealed a complex picture consisting of an early activation of several neurotransmitter systems, in which the glutamatergic plays a pivotal role., Data accumulated in recent years support the concept that multi-targeting of pathways including glutamatergic and cholinergic circuits is required for an effective treatment. Drugs that demonstrate the ability to interact with several systems (e.g., caramiphen) were found to afford a superior protection against OPs as compared to specific antimuscarinic ligands (e.g., scopolamine). Compounds that potently block muscarinic receptors, interact with the NMDA ion channel and in addition are able to modulate σ(1) sites and/or GABAergic transmission seem to represent the emerging backbone for novel antidotes against OP poisoning. Several multifunctional drugs are already used for complex diseases e.g., cancer and depression.