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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism, or overactivity of the thyroid gland. It results from autoantibodies called thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs), which bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, leading to overstimulation of hormone production and a hypermetabolic state.EtiologyAlthough considered idiopathic, Graves’ disease has well-established contributing factors. There is a strong genetic component, with increased prevalence in...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 28, 2026

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Orbital Fractures

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Orbital Fractures

Published on: May 16, 2025

[Orbital decompression for thyroid orbitopathy].

Dariusz Babiński¹, Andrzej Skorek, Adam Nałęcz

¹Katedra i Klinika Chorób Uszu, Nosa, Gardła i Krtani, Gdański Uniwersytet Medyczny. darbab@wp.pl

Otolaryngologia Polska = the Polish Otolaryngology

|October 18, 2011

Summary

Surgical orbital decompression effectively reduces proptosis in thyroid orbitopathy, preserving vision. Both external and endoscopic approaches offer significant proptosis reduction with no new diplopia post-surgery.

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Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Published on: May 12, 2023

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Last Updated: May 28, 2026

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Orbital Fractures

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Orbital Fractures

Published on: May 16, 2025

Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Published on: May 12, 2023

Area of Science:

Ophthalmology
Otorhinolaryngology

Background:

Thyroid orbitopathy can cause severe proptosis, potentially leading to vision loss.
Surgical orbital decompression is an option when medical and radiotherapeutic treatments fail.

Observation:

Three patients (five procedures) with significant proptosis (22-31mm) underwent orbital decompression.
Procedures included external Walsh-Ogura (3 orbits) and endoscopic approaches (2 orbits).

Findings:

Orbital decompression reduced proptosis by 4-6mm (external) and 4-5mm (endoscopic).
No new postoperative diplopia occurred; preoperative diplopia resolved in some cases.
Endoscopic surgery proved safe and effective for moderate proptosis.

Implications:

Orbital decompression is a valuable intervention for vision rescue in thyroid orbitopathy.
Endoscopic decompression offers a safe and effective alternative for moderate proptosis.
Nasal mucosal inflammation does not appear to elevate surgical complication risks.