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The Parathyroid Glands

The Parathyroid Glands

The two pairs of parathyroid glands embedded within the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are restricted by a dense capsule around them. These glands comprise two distinct cell populations—parathyroid oxyphil and parathyroid principal cells- pivotal in calcium homeostasis.
Oxyphil cells, whose functions remain elusive, emerge during late puberty, adding a layer of complexity to the parathyroid gland's intricacies. In contrast, principal parathyroid cells undertake a vital role by producing...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Appendicitis

Appendicitis

Appendicitis is an acute inflammatory condition of the vermiform appendix, most commonly caused by obstruction of its lumen. The appendix is a narrow, blind-ended pouch that extends from the cecum, making it particularly prone to obstruction. Causes include fecaliths, lymphoid hyperplasia (often after viral infections), parasites, tumors, or foreign bodies. This obstruction initiates a cascade of pathological changes.Luminal Obstruction and Early InflammationAfter obstruction, normal mucosal...

The Pituitary Gland

The Pituitary Gland

The pituitary is a small endocrine organ in the sphenoid bone under the hypothalamus. Primarily, the pituitary in adults has two distinct anatomical and functional regions— the anterior and posterior lobes. During human fetal development, a third pituitary gland region called the pars intermedia atrophies and disappears. However, some of its cells migrate and exist adjacent to the anterior pituitary in adults.

Synthesis and Functions of Calcitonin

Synthesis and Functions of Calcitonin

Calcitonin, a vital polypeptide hormone, regulates calcium levels within body fluids. It is released by the parafollicular cells, also known as C cells, situated in the follicular epithelium of the thyroid gland. Calcitonin responds to fluctuations in blood calcium levels and the influence of gastrointestinal hormones like gastrin and cholecystokinin.
The exact mechanisms by which calcitonin operates in calcium homeostasis remain elusive, but its significance is evident in several vital...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 27, 2026

Establishment of a Simple and Effective Rat Model for Intraoperative Parathyroid Gland Imaging

Establishment of a Simple and Effective Rat Model for Intraoperative Parathyroid Gland Imaging

Published on: August 17, 2022

Three large, functioning cystic parathyroid adenomas.

Haggi Mazeh¹, Rebecca S Sippel, Herbert Chen

¹Section of Endocrine Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53792, USA.

Endocrine Practice : Official Journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists

|November 10, 2011

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

A rare case of three large, functioning parathyroid cysts causing primary hyperparathyroidism was reported. Intraoperative parathyroid hormone (PTH) monitoring was crucial for diagnosing multigland disease.

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Establishment of a Simple and Effective Rat Model for Intraoperative Parathyroid Gland Imaging

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Two Techniques to Create Hypoparathyroid Mice: Parathyroidectomy Using GFP Glands and Diphtheria-Toxin-Mediated Parathyroid Ablation

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Published on: March 14, 2017

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Surgical Pathology
Oncology

Background:

Primary hyperparathyroidism is commonly caused by a single parathyroid adenoma.
Parathyroid cysts are rare, and functioning cystic parathyroid adenomas are exceptionally uncommon.

Observation:

A 79-year-old woman presented with symptoms of primary hyperparathyroidism, including elevated calcium and parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels.
Initial imaging suggested a single large parathyroid adenoma, but intraoperative findings revealed a large cystic parathyroid gland.
Persistent elevated intraoperative PTH levels prompted further exploration, uncovering two additional large cystic parathyroid glands.

Findings:

Surgical resection of all three cystic parathyroid adenomas led to normalization of calcium and PTH levels.
Intraoperative PTH monitoring was essential in identifying multigland disease despite initial imaging findings.
Histopathological examination confirmed the cystic nature and functioning adenomas of the resected parathyroid glands.

Implications:

This case emphasizes the importance of considering multigland disease even with seemingly localized parathyroid pathology.
Intraoperative PTH measurement is a valuable tool for guiding surgical management of complex hyperparathyroidism cases.
The successful management of multiple large cystic parathyroid adenomas highlights advancements in endocrine surgery and diagnostics.