One protein to rule them all: modulation of cell surface receptors and molecules by HIV Nef

The HIV-1, HIV-2 and SIV Nef protein are known to modulate the expression of several cell surface receptors and molecules to escape the immune system, to alter T cell activation, to enhance viral replication, infectivity and transmission and overall to ensure the optimal environment for infection outcome. Consistent and continuous efforts have been made over the years to characterize the modulation of expression of each of these molecules, in the hope that a better understanding of these processes essential for HIV infection and/or pathogenesis will eventually highlight new therapeutic targets. In this article we provide an extensive review of the knowledge gained so far on this important and evolving topic.