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The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

Green algae and plants, including green stems and unripe fruit, harbor specialized organelles called chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. They coordinate both stages of photosynthesis — the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions use sunlight to release oxygen and produce chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions capture CO2 and use ATP and NADPH to produce sugar.
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Green Algae

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Green algae, also referred to as chlorophytes, are different from red algae in having the chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b, which give them their distinct green hue. However, they lack phycobiliproteins, preventing them from developing the red or blue-green pigmentation seen in red algae. In terms of photosynthetic pigment composition, green algae closely resemble plants and share a close evolutionary relationship with them. Taxonomically Green algae belong to Phylum Chlorophyta in...

Export of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast Genes

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A eukaryotic cell can have up to three different types of genetic systems: nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast. During evolution, organelles have exported many genes to the nucleus; this transfer is still ongoing in some plant species. Approximately 18% of the Arabidopsis thaliana nuclear genome is thought to be derived from the chloroplast’s cyanobacterial ancestor, and around 75% of the yeast genome derived from the mitochondria’s bacterial ancestor. This export has occurred irrespective...

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Red Algae

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Red algae, also known as rhodophytes, are primarily found in marine environments, though some species inhabit freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. These organisms exist in both unicellular and multicellular forms, with some multicellular varieties reaching macroscopic sizes.As phototrophic organisms, red algae contain chlorophyll a; however, their chloroplasts lack chlorophyll b. Instead, they possess phycobiliproteins, which serve as major light-harvesting pigments, similar to those found in...

Protein Transport to the Inner Chloroplast Membrane

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Proteins targeted to the inner chloroplast membrane, or plastid proteins, are transported by two general pathways: the stop-transfer and the re-insertion or post-import pathways. Most plastid proteins carry N-terminal transit sequences and internal import sequences targeting it to the specific chloroplast subcompartment. Proteins targeted by the stop-transfer pathway have internal hydrophobic sequences that inhibit their translocation into the stroma. As a result, these precursors are arrested...

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Updated: May 27, 2026

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Genetic Engineering of Green Microalgae, Chlorella vulgaris

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Genetic Engineering of Green Microalgae, Chlorella vulgaris

Published on: October 27, 2023

An exogenous chloroplast genome for complex sequence manipulation in algae.

Bryan M O'Neill¹, Kari L Mikkelson, Noel M Gutierrez

¹Sapphire Energy, Inc., San Diego, CA 92121, USA. bryan.oneill@sapphireenergy.com

Nucleic Acids Research

|November 26, 2011

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Scientists developed a new method to engineer the chloroplast genome in algae. This system enables complex genetic modifications at multiple sites, paving the way for creating novel genetic diversity in chloroplasts.

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Area of Science:

* Synthetic biology
* Chloroplast genetics
* Algal biotechnology

Background:

* The chloroplast genome is crucial for photosynthesis but challenging to engineer.
* Previous methods lacked efficiency for complex, multi-locus modifications.
* Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a model organism for algal research.

Purpose of the Study:

* To develop a robust system for ex vivo cloning and in vivo modification of the chloroplast genome.
* To enable simultaneous, complex genetic engineering at multiple sites within the chloroplast genome.
* To demonstrate the functional integration of modified chloroplast genomes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Main Methods:

* Assembly of the chloroplast genome in yeast using overlapping DNA fragments and sequence stabilization.
* Large-scale preparation of the assembled genome in bacteria.
* Transformation of the engineered genome into Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells, facilitating homologous recombination.

Main Results:

* Successful assembly and transfer of a modified chloroplast genome into Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.
* Demonstrated simultaneous substitution of multiple endogenous genes with orthologous genes from Scenedesmus obliquus.
* Confirmed in vivo function of the engineered hybrid chloroplast genome.

Conclusions:

* A novel system for comprehensive chloroplast genome engineering has been established.
* Simultaneous, multi-locus genetic modification of the chloroplast genome is now feasible in vivo.
* This approach opens new avenues for generating genetic diversity and functional studies in chloroplasts.