The vestibular system is a set of inner ear structures that provide a sense of balance and spatial orientation. This system is comprised of structures within the labyrinth of the inner ear, including the cochlea and two otolith organs—the utricle and saccule. The labyrinth also contains three semicircular canals—superior, posterior, and horizontal—that are oriented on different planes.

The inner ear assumes dual functionalities of auditory perception and equilibrium maintenance. The vestibule is the organ responsible for balance. This organ contains mechanoreceptors, specifically hair cells, endowed with stereocilia, which aid in deciphering information regarding the position and motion of our heads. Two intrinsic components, the utricle and saccule, help perceive head position, while the semicircular canals track head movement. Neurological messages initiated in the...

The cranial and spinal meninges are complex protective structures surrounding the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord. These meninges consist of the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. They protect the CNS, provide structural support, and aid in circulating cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Cranial Meninges
These meningeal layers cover the cranium. The dura mater is the outermost layer of cranial meninges. It is a thick and durable membrane of dense...