Directions for research on self-disclosure and immediacy: moderation, mediation, and the inverted U

The psychotherapist's use of self-disclosure (SD) and immediacy has been a controversial topic over the decades. In this article, some ingredients are described that will help advance knowledge in the area of the therapist SD and immediacy. More than has been the case, researchers in this area should construct clear definitions of the SD/immediacy variables being investigated, and make sure that their operationalizations are consistent with these definitions. In addition, it is argued that if the field is to advance, at this point in time researchers need to examine "who, what, when, and where" questions, making use of in-principle moderation, that is, the study of which SD/immediacy responses are most effective with what patients, suffering from what problems and disorders, when offered by which therapists doing what kinds of psychotherapy? In addition, the study of mediation is suggested, as is researchers' taking into account the operation of the inverted U when studying the frequency, intensity, or duration of SD/immediacy.