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Related Concept Videos

Major Somatic Sensory Pathways01:28

Major Somatic Sensory Pathways

Sensory impulses related to touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception from various body parts, such as the limbs, trunk, neck, and posterior head, travel to the cerebral cortex through the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway. The pathway’s name derives from the two white-matter tracts that convey the impulses: the spinal cord's posterior column and the brainstem's medial lemniscus. First-order sensory neurons extend their axons into the spinal cord, forming the posterior columns...
Somatosensation01:33

Somatosensation

The somatosensory system relays sensory information from the skin, mucous membranes, limbs, and joints. Somatosensation is more familiarly known as the sense of touch. A typical somatosensory pathway includes three types of long neurons: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary neurons have cell bodies located near the spinal cord in groups of neurons called dorsal root ganglia. The sensory neurons of ganglia innervate designated areas of skin called dermatomes.
Equilibrium and Balance01:15

Equilibrium and Balance

The inner ear assumes dual functionalities of auditory perception and equilibrium maintenance. The vestibule is the organ responsible for balance. This organ contains mechanoreceptors, specifically hair cells, endowed with stereocilia, which aid in deciphering information regarding the position and motion of our heads. Two intrinsic components, the utricle and saccule, help perceive head position, while the semicircular canals track head movement. Neurological messages initiated in the...
Indirect Motor Pathways01:22

Indirect Motor Pathways

The indirect motor or extrapyramidal pathways originate in the brainstem, the lower portion of the brain that connects it to the spinal cord. They consist of several distinct tracts, each with specialized functions. The four main tracts of the indirect motor pathways are the vestibulospinal tract, the reticulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract, and the rubrospinal tract.
The vestibulospinal tract originates in the vestibular nuclei of the brainstem. The vestibular system detects changes in...
Overview of Somatic Sensory Pathways01:29

Overview of Somatic Sensory Pathways

Somatic sensory or somatosensory pathways refer to the neural pathways that carry information related to touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and proprioception from the skin, muscles, tendons, and joints to the brain. These pathways involve several stages of processing and integration of sensory information.
The somatosensory system is divided into three main pathways: the dorsal (or posterior) column-medial lemniscus, spinothalamic (or anterolateral), and spinocerebellar pathways.
The dorsal...
Spinal Cord: Cross-sectional Anatomy01:16

Spinal Cord: Cross-sectional Anatomy

The cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord offers a detailed view of its complex structure and function within the central nervous system. At the core of the spinal cord lies the gray matter, characterized by its butterfly or "H"-shaped appearance in cross-section. This central region is enveloped by white matter, with the overall structure divided into symmetrical halves by the dorsal median sulcus and the ventral median fissure.
Gray Matter and its Components
Central to the gray matter is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 26, 2026

Experimental Methods to Study Human Postural Control
08:12

Experimental Methods to Study Human Postural Control

Published on: September 11, 2019

Foot anatomy specialization for postural sensation and control.

W G Wright1, Y P Ivanenko, V S Gurfinkel

  • 1Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA. wrightw@temple.edu

Journal of Neurophysiology
|December 14, 2011
PubMed
Summary

The human foot

Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics
  • Anthropology
  • Human Physiology

Background:

  • Anthropological and biomechanical research highlights the human foot's unique evolutionary design for propulsion and support.
  • Traditional postural studies often overlook the foot's arch and toes, focusing instead on ankle joint function.
  • The precise role of foot anatomy and sensorimotor control in maintaining posture requires further investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To quantify foot arch deformation under load.
  • To investigate the impact of localized perturbations on the toes (TOE) or metatarsals (MT) on posture during standing.
  • To explore the foot's contribution to bipedal postural control.

Main Methods:

  • Quantified foot arch deformation using an arch probe while applying loads.

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  • Measured electromyogram (EMG) activity of the tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscles during perturbations.
  • Analyzed shin sway variability (root-mean-square - RMS) in response to toe and metatarsal perturbations.
  • Recorded changes in foot arch height during load application and removal in a sitting position.

    • Main Results:

    • Foot arch height changed by 1-1.5 mm with knee loading/unloading, with skin compression accounting for less than 50% of this.
    • A significant correlation was observed between foot arch flattening and forward tibial tilt during quiet standing.
    • Perturbations to the toes (TOE) and metatarsals (MT) caused significant changes in muscle activity (EMG) and increased shin sway (RMS) variability.
    • The MT condition resulted in greater RMS variability increases compared to the TOE condition.
    • Recovery of RMS to baseline levels after perturbations took over 30 seconds, suggesting a recalibration of the sensorimotor system.

    Conclusions:

    • The human foot is not a rigid support but a compliant, active structure highly sensitive to minor deformations.
    • Foot architecture and physiology play a crucial role in the fine-tuned control of bipedal posture.
    • Minute foot perturbations can significantly alter postural control mechanisms, requiring substantial sensorimotor adaptation.