Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Cognitive Learning01:21

Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning is based on purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning.
E. C. Tolman's theory of purposive behavior emphasizes that much behavior is goal-directed. He argued that to understand behavior, we must look at the entire sequence of actions leading to a goal. For instance, high school students study hard, not just due to past reinforcement but also to achieve the goal of getting into a good college.
Tolman introduced the idea that behavior is influenced by...
Purposive Learning01:22

Purposive Learning

E. C. Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of behavior — the idea that much of our behavior is goal-directed. For instance, employees who aim for a promotion work diligently to meet their targets. Tolman argued that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur, the organism acquires certain expectations. In classical conditioning, a child might fear a dog because they expect it to bite. In operant conditioning, a person might consistently work overtime because they expect a bonus...
Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning01:15

Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning not only includes the initial pairing of stimuli but also extends to more complex forms, such as higher-order conditioning. Higher-order conditioning involves creating associations beyond the primary conditioned stimulus, resulting in a chain of conditioned responses.
Higher-order, or second-order, conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an already established conditioned stimulus through repeated pairings. For instance, if a dog has been...
Associative Learning01:27

Associative Learning

Associative learning is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology, wherein a connection is established between two stimuli or events, leading to a learned response. This process is critical in understanding how behaviors are acquired and modified. Conditioning, the mechanism through which associations are formed, can be divided into two main types: classical conditioning and operant conditioning, each elucidating different aspects of associative learning.
Classical conditioning, also known...
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction01:24

Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

Generalization, discrimination, and extinction are key concepts in operant conditioning that influence how behaviors are learned and maintained.
Generalization occurs when a behavior reinforced in one context is performed in similar situations. For instance, a student who studies diligently for calculus and receives excellent grades might apply the same study habits to psychology and history, expecting similar results. Generalization shows how learning in one setting can influence behavior in...
Introduction to Learning01:18

Introduction to Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge or skills through practice or experience, leading to long-lasting behavioral changes. This acquisition occurs through interaction with the environment and requires practice or experience. For instance, mastering a skill such as surfing requires considerable practice and experience, highlighting the essential role of repeated interactions with the environment in learning.
In contrast to learned behaviors, unlearned behaviors such as crying, sexual...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Grounding mathematics in an integrated conceptual structure, part II: intervention study demonstrating robust learning and retention through a grounded curriculum.

Frontiers in psychology·2026
Same author

Learning to Decompose: Human-Like Subgoal Preferences Emerge in Neural Networks Learning Graph Traversal.

Open mind : discoveries in cognitive science·2025
Same author

Reflections on David E. Rumelhart and the Rumelhart Prize.

Topics in cognitive science·2025
Same author

Grounding mathematics in an integrated conceptual structure, part I: experimental evidence that grounded rules support transfer that formal rules do not.

Frontiers in psychology·2025
Same author

Profile of John Hopfield and Geoffrey Hinton: 2024 Nobel laureates in physics.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·2025
Same author

Language models, like humans, show content effects on reasoning tasks.

PNAS nexus·2024

Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 26, 2026

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic β-Blocker
08:32

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic β-Blocker

Published on: December 18, 2014

Two mechanisms of human contingency learning.

Daniel A Sternberg1, James L McClelland

  • 1Jordan Hall, Building 420, Stanford University, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. sternberg@stanford.edu

Psychological Science
|December 27, 2011
PubMed
Summary

Humans use distinct learning processes for event contingencies. Prediction tasks require causal inference, while rapid response tasks rely on automatic association, challenging single-mechanism models.

Area of Science:

  • Cognitive psychology
  • Learning sciences
  • Human behavior

Background:

  • Contingency learning, how humans learn event associations, is explained by two models: pathway-strengthening and inference-based processes.
  • It remains unclear if a single mechanism underlies all contingency learning or if multiple processes are involved.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate whether different conditions elicit distinct mechanisms for contingency learning.
  • To differentiate between inference-based and pathway-strengthening models in human learning.

Main Methods:

  • Participants learned associations between visual displays (single/paired objects) and an outcome (dot appearance).
  • Two tasks were employed: a prediction task (anticipating the outcome) and a response task (reacting to the outcome).

More Related Videos

New Variations for Strategy Set-shifting in the Rat
09:45

New Variations for Strategy Set-shifting in the Rat

Published on: January 23, 2017

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats
08:30

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Published on: February 15, 2015

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 26, 2026

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic β-Blocker
08:32

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic β-Blocker

Published on: December 18, 2014

New Variations for Strategy Set-shifting in the Rat
09:45

New Variations for Strategy Set-shifting in the Rat

Published on: January 23, 2017

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats
08:30

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Published on: February 15, 2015

  • Causal instructions were manipulated in the prediction task.

    • Main Results:

    • In the prediction task, causal instructions were essential for learning associations involving paired objects.
    • In the response task, associations influenced performance regardless of causal instructions.
    • These findings indicate distinct learning mechanisms operate under different task demands.

    Conclusions:

    • Contingency learning is not governed by a single mechanism.
    • Task requirements, such as prediction versus rapid response, determine which learning process is engaged.
    • This research supports a dual-process account of contingency learning.