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Self-Discrepancy Theory

Self-Discrepancy Theory

One influential perspective on what motivates people's behavior is detailed in Tory Higgin's self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987). He proposed that people hold disagreeing internal representations of themselves that lead to different emotional states.

Self-Presentation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Handicapping

Self-Presentation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Handicapping

People can go to great lengths to protect their self-image and present themselves in ways that they want others to see them. Sociologist Erving Goffman presented the idea that a person is like an actor on a stage. Calling his theory dramaturgy, Goffman believed that we use “impression management” to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived. Each situation is a new scene, and individuals perform different roles depending on who is present (Goffman, 1959). Think about the way you...

Long-term Depression

Long-term Depression

Long-term depression, or LTD, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTD is the process of synaptic weakening that occurs over time between pre and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic weakening of LTD works in opposition to synaptic strengthening by long-term potentiation (LTP) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.
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Long-term Depression

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Long-term depression, or LTD, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTD is the process of synaptic weakening that occurs over time between pre and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic weakening of LTD works in opposition to synaptic strengthening by long-term potentiation (LTP) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.

Self-Discrepancy and Its Effects

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Self-discrepancy theory explains how people compare their actual self to their ideal and ought selves and how mismatches between these self-guides can lead to emotional distress. Developed by E. Tory Higgins, the theory distinguishes among three components of self-concept: the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self. These refer respectively to how individuals perceive themselves, how they aspire to be, and how they believe they are obligated to be. Emotional well-being, self-esteem,...

Depression: Overview

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Depression is a prevalent mental illness marked by persistent sadness and lack of interest in previously enjoyable activities. It can take several forms, including major depression, persistent depressive disorder, and bipolar I and II disorders. Symptoms range from emotional changes like chronic worry to physical changes like sleep disturbances and suicidal thoughts. From a neurobiological perspective, depression is believed to be triggered by abnormalities in the brain's prefrontal cortex,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 25, 2026

Highlighting and Reducing the Impact of Negative Aging Stereotypes During Older Adults' Cognitive Testing

Highlighting and Reducing the Impact of Negative Aging Stereotypes During Older Adults' Cognitive Testing

Published on: January 24, 2020

Depression and self-focused language in structured interviews with older men.

William Jarrold¹, Harold S Javitz, Ruth Krasnow

¹University of California at Davis, USA. wjarrold@ucdavis.edu

Psychological Reports

|January 14, 2012

Summary

Depression is linked to self-focused language, but context matters. A specific question revealed this association in older men, unlike a broader interview.

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Last Updated: May 25, 2026

Highlighting and Reducing the Impact of Negative Aging Stereotypes During Older Adults' Cognitive Testing

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Area of Science:

Psychology
Gerontology
Linguistics

Background:

Previous research shows mixed results on the link between depression and self-focused language.
The communicative context may influence the presence or absence of this association.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the association between depression and self-focused language in older men.
To test if a broad, evaluative self-focused question elicits a stronger association than a heterogeneous interview.

Main Methods:

Analyzed spontaneous speech from structured interviews of 26 depressed and nondepressed older men.
Compared language use in response to a specific self-focused question versus a full interview.

Main Results:

The association between self-focused language and depression was found for the specific target question.
This association was not evident across the entire interview, which included diverse questions.

Conclusions:

The communicative context, specifically question type, is crucial for observing the link between depression and self-focused language.
Findings may help reconcile discrepancies in previous research on this topic.