Virtual and augmented medical imaging environments: enabling technology for minimally invasive cardiac interventional...

Virtual and augmented reality environments have been adopted in medicine as a means to enhance the clinician's view of the anatomy and facilitate the performance of minimally invasive procedures. Their value is truly appreciated during interventions where the surgeon cannot directly visualize the targets to be treated, such as during cardiac procedures performed on the beating heart. These environments must accurately represent the real surgical field and require seamless integration of pre- and intra-operative imaging, surgical tracking, and visualization technology in a common framework centered around the patient. This review begins with an overview of minimally invasive cardiac interventions, describes the architecture of a typical surgical guidance platform including imaging, tracking, registration and visualization, highlights both clinical and engineering accuracy limitations in cardiac image guidance, and discusses the translation of the work from the laboratory into the operating room together with typically encountered challenges.