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Related Concept Videos

Gas Exchange and Transport01:20

Gas Exchange and Transport

Gas exchange, the intake of molecular oxygen (O2) from the environment and the outflow of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the environment, is necessary for cellular function. Gas exchange during respiration occurs largely via the movement of gas molecules along pressure gradients. Gas travels from areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure. In mammals, gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs, which are adjacent to capillaries and share a membrane with them.
Oxygen Requirements and Growth Patterns01:29

Oxygen Requirements and Growth Patterns

Microorganisms exhibit diverse oxygen requirements and growth patterns driven by their metabolic strategies and environmental adaptations. Oxygen, while essential for many organisms, can also be toxic under certain conditions, shaping how microorganisms grow and survive.Oxygen Requirements of MicroorganismsMicroorganisms are classified based on their ability to use or tolerate oxygen:● Obligate aerobes like Mycobacterium tuberculosis need oxygen for energy production, as it serves as the...
Oxygen Transport in the Blood01:27

Oxygen Transport in the Blood

Hemoglobin (Hb) is a crucial molecule in the human body, consisting of four polypeptide chains, each bound to an iron-containing heme group. This unique structure enables hemoglobin to bind to oxygen, with each molecule capable of combining with four molecules of oxygen, leading to rapid and reversible oxygen loading. When fully loaded with oxygen, it is called oxyhemoglobin, while hemoglobin that has released oxygen is called reduced hemoglobin or deoxyhemoglobin. As hemoglobin binds oxygen,...
Respiration and Gaseous Exchange01:20

Respiration and Gaseous Exchange

The intricate interplay between the cardiovascular and respiratory systems is crucial for efficiently transporting respiratory gases throughout the body. Let us explore the cardiovascular system's multifaceted functions, emphasizing its pivotal role in gas exchange.
Respiration involves the exchange of gases, especially oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the alveoli and body cells, a process facilitated by blood circulation. As a result, the cardiovascular system, which involves the...
Chemical Factors Affecting Respiration Centers01:31

Chemical Factors Affecting Respiration Centers

Chemical factors such as changing CO2, O2, and H+ levels in arterial blood play a critical role in influencing respiration depth and rates. These variations are detected by chemoreceptors—specialized sensors located in two primary body areas. Central chemoreceptors are found throughout the brain stem, including the ventrolateral medulla, while peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the aortic arch and carotid arteries.
CO2 has a potent influence on respiration and is strictly regulated. Under...
Types of Signaling Molecules01:32

Types of Signaling Molecules

In multicellular organisms, many molecules transmit signals between cells to pass information. These signals vary in complexity and include small peptides, nucleotides, steroids, fatty acid derivatives, and dissolved gases such as nitric oxide. Some signaling molecules diffuse through the plasma membrane to act locally between neighboring cells or travel long distances. Others remain attached to the cell surface, transmitting information to other cells only when they make contact. In some...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 24, 2026

Imaging Approaches to Assessments of Toxicological Oxidative Stress Using Genetically-encoded Fluorogenic Sensors
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Imaging Approaches to Assessments of Toxicological Oxidative Stress Using Genetically-encoded Fluorogenic Sensors

Published on: February 7, 2018

Gaseous messengers in oxygen sensing.

Nanduri R Prabhakar1, Gregg L Semenza

  • 1Institute for Integrative Physiology and Center for Systems Biology of O2 Sensing, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA. nanduri@uchicago.edu

Journal of Molecular Medicine (Berlin, Germany)
|February 22, 2012
PubMed
Summary

The carotid body uses gas messengers like carbon monoxide and nitric oxide to sense oxygen levels. Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) and hydrogen sulfide also play key roles in this vital sensory organ.

Area of Science:

  • Physiology
  • Cell Biology
  • Biochemistry

Background:

  • The carotid body is a critical sensory organ that monitors arterial oxygen levels and initiates reflex responses to hypoxia.
  • Gas messengers and redox homeostasis are integral to the carotid body's hypoxic sensing mechanisms.
  • Dysregulation of carotid body activity contributes to various autonomic morbidities.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To update the understanding of gas messengers' roles in carotid body function.
  • To elucidate the involvement of redox homeostasis regulated by hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) in hypoxic sensing.
  • To explore potential therapeutic targets for normalizing carotid body function.

Main Methods:

  • Investigated the roles of carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in carotid body activity.

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Synthesis and Calibration of Phosphorescent Nanoprobes for Oxygen Imaging in Biological Systems

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  • Utilized knockout mice (Cth-/- and Hif1a+/-) to study the effects of enzyme deficiencies on hypoxic responses.
  • Examined the interaction between cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE) and heme oxygenase-2 (HO-2) in H2S generation.
  • Assessed the differential roles of HIF-1α and HIF-2α in carotid body responses to hypoxia.

    • Main Results:

    • CO and NO, produced by HO-2 and nNOS respectively, inhibit carotid body activity, with their production dependent on molecular oxygen.
    • Hypoxia-induced stimulation of carotid body activity may result from decreased CO and NO formation.
    • Mice lacking CSE (Cth-/-) showed impaired H2S generation, sensory excitation, and respiratory stimulation in response to hypoxia.
    • Hypoxia-evoked H2S generation requires CSE-HO-2 interaction, highlighting a link between H2S and CO production.
    • Partial HIF-1α deficiency abolished hypoxic response, while partial HIF-2α deficiency led to hyper-responsiveness, revealing opposing roles in redox homeostasis.

    Conclusions:

    • Gas messengers (CO, NO, H2S) and HIF-mediated redox regulation are crucial for carotid body oxygen sensing.
    • The interplay between CSE, HO-2, and HIFs provides novel insights into carotid body's molecular mechanisms.
    • Targeting enzymes generating gas messengers and HIFs offers potential therapeutic strategies for diseases linked to heightened carotid body activity.