Extra cytoplasmic function σ factor activation
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Updated: May 24, 2026

Super-Resolution Imaging of Bacterial Secreted Proteins Using Genetic Code Expansion
Published on: February 10, 2023
Theresa D Ho1, Craig D Ellermeier
1Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States.
Abstract:
The bacterial cell envelope is essential for cell viability and is a target for numerous antibiotics and host immune defenses. Thus bacteria must sense and respond to damage to the cell envelope. Many bacteria utilize alternative σ factors such as extracytoplasmic function (ECF) σ factors to respond to cell envelope stress. Although ECF σ factors are utilized by both Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria to respond to cell envelope stress, the mechanisms of sensing differ. In this review, we examine the events and proteins that are required for activation of two model extracytoplasmic function σ factors, σ(E) in E. coli and σ(W) in B. subtilis.
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