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Surface Tension

Surface Tension

Surface tension is defined as the force per unit length (γ) acting along the surface of a liquid. It arises due to strong intermolecular forces of attraction. A molecule located inside the bulk of the liquid is surrounded by other molecules and experiences equal forces in all directions. However, a molecule at the surface experiences unbalanced forces because there are more neighboring molecules below than above. This creates a net inward force that pulls surface molecules toward the interior,...

Surface Tension and Surface Energy

Surface Tension and Surface Energy

When a paint brush is immersed in water, the bristles wave freely inside the water. When it is taken out, the bristles stick together. The reason behind this effect is surface tension.
Consider a beaker filled with liquid. The bulk molecules in the liquid experience equal attractive forces on all sides with the surrounding molecules. However, the surface molecules experience a net attractive force downward due to the bulk molecules. The surface of the liquid behaves like a stretched membrane,...

Excess Pressure Inside a Drop and a Bubble

Excess Pressure Inside a Drop and a Bubble

The shape of a small drop of liquid can be considered spherical, neglecting the effect of gravity. This drop can further be considered as two equal hemispherical drops put together due to surface tension. The forces acting on the spherical drop are due to the pressure of the liquid inside the drop, the pressure due to air outside the drop, and the force due to the surface tension acting on the two hemispherical drops.

Enthalpy of Solution

Enthalpy of Solution

There are two criteria that favor, but do not guarantee, the spontaneous formation of a solution:

Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity

Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity

Surface Tension
The various IMFs between identical molecules of a substance are examples of cohesive forces. The molecules within a liquid are surrounded by other molecules and are attracted equally in all directions by the cohesive forces within the liquid. However, the molecules on the surface of a liquid are attracted only by about one-half as many molecules. Because of the unbalanced molecular attractions on the surface molecules, liquids contract to form a shape that minimizes the number...

Physical Properties Affecting Solubility

Physical Properties Affecting Solubility

Solutions of Gases in Liquids
As for any solution, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is affected by the attractive intermolecular forces between solute and solvent species. Unlike solid and liquid solutes, however, there is no solute-solute intermolecular attraction to overcome when a gaseous solute dissolves in a liquid solvent since the atoms or molecules comprising a gas are far separated and experience negligible interactions. Consequently, solute-solvent interactions are the sole...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 24, 2026

Pool-Boiling Heat-Transfer Enhancement on Cylindrical Surfaces with Hybrid Wettable Patterns

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Published on: April 10, 2017

Temperature dependence of surface nanobubbles.

Robin P Berkelaar¹, James R T Seddon, Harold J W Zandvliet

¹Physics of Fluids, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands. r.p.berkelaar@utwente.nl

Chemphyschem : a European Journal of Chemical Physics and Physical Chemistry

|March 14, 2012

Summary

Surface nanobubbles exhibit varied responses to temperature changes, with some growing and others shrinking. Their total volume peaks around 33°C, indicating overall stability despite individual nanobubble fluctuations.

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Area of Science:

Surface science
Nanoscale phenomena
Thermodynamics

Background:

Surface nanobubbles are ubiquitous nanoscale phenomena with implications in various fields.
Understanding their behavior under different conditions is crucial for controlling surface properties.
Previous studies have explored nanobubble behavior with increasing temperature.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the temperature dependence of surface nanobubbles.
To track the geometrical evolution of individual nanobubbles as temperature decreases.
To elucidate the mechanisms governing nanobubble stability and dynamics.

Main Methods:

Experimental investigation using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).
In-situ scanning of the same surface area across a temperature range (51 °C to 25 °C).
Tracking of individual nanobubble size and shape changes.

Main Results:

Individual nanobubbles displayed heterogeneous responses to decreasing temperature; some grew, while others shrank.
Observed growth and shrinkage occurred in distinct spatial regions, not consistent with Ostwald ripening.
The total nanobubble volume per unit area exhibited a maximum around 33 °C.

Conclusions:

Surface nanobubble behavior is complex and size-dependent, with individual bubbles reacting differently to thermal changes.
The observed phenomena suggest localized effects rather than bulk-driven processes like Ostwald ripening.
The overall stability of surface nanobubbles is supported by the temperature-dependent volume maximum, consistent with prior research.