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Folding in power-law viscous multi-layers.

Stefan M Schmalholz¹, Daniel W Schmid

¹Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland. stefan.schmalholz@unil.ch

Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences

|March 21, 2012

Summary

Numerical simulations reveal that high-amplitude folding in layered rocks significantly softens their bulk viscosity. Irregular fold shapes arise from initial heterogeneities, impacting geological models of rock deformation.

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Area of Science:

Geophysics
Structural Geology
Computational Geoscience

Background:

Understanding rock folding is crucial for interpreting geological structures.
Layered rock deformation involves complex interactions between material properties and applied stresses.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the development of high-amplitude folds in layered rocks using numerical simulations.
To analyze the influence of different shearing settings and material properties on fold morphology and rheology.

Main Methods:

Two-dimensional finite-element method simulations were employed.
Modeling focused on incompressible multi-layers with power-law viscous rheology.
Lagrangian numerical mesh deformation and re-meshing were used to track layer interfaces.

Main Results:

Finite-amplitude folds consistently formed in pure shear, even with weak interlayers, exhibiting irregular shapes due to initial heterogeneities.
Progressive folding led to significant structural softening, reducing bulk normal viscosity by a factor of 2-20.
Simple shear resulted in predominantly curved, non-parallel fold axial planes, while slump folding produced asymmetric folds with overturned limbs, strongly influenced by competent layer rheology.

Conclusions:

Initial heterogeneities significantly impact fold shape complexity in layered rocks.
Structural softening is a key consequence of high-amplitude folding, reducing the effective viscosity of rock layers.
The rheology of competent layers plays a critical role in the development of asymmetric folds during gravity-driven deformation.