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Physiological Foundation of Stress

Physiological Foundation of Stress

Stress triggers a coordinated physiological response involving the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This dual activation ensures that the body is prepared for both immediate and prolonged stress management. The process begins with the perception of a stressor. This initial phase activates the SNS, leading to the rapid release of adrenaline (epinephrine) from the adrenal glands.
Role of the Sympathetic Nervous System
Adrenaline triggers the...

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

The response to stress—be it physical or psychological, acute or chronic—involves activation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA axis is part of the neuroendocrine system because it involves both neuronal and hormonal communication. Its function is to regulate homeostatic systems—metabolic, cardiovascular, and immune—providing the necessary means to respond to a stressor.

Stress Response System

Stress Response System

The stress response system, also known as the fight-or-flight response, is the body's automatic physiological reaction to perceived threats. Hans Selye introduced the concept of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to describe the predictable pattern of changes that occur in response to stress. GAS consists of three sequential stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. This model helps explain how chronic stress can contribute to health problems.
Alarm stage
In the alarm stage, the body's initial...

Introduction to Stress and Lifestyle

Introduction to Stress and Lifestyle

Stress is a multifaceted response to events perceived as challenging or threatening, highlighting physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral reactions. Physically, stress can lead to fatigue, sleep disruptions, and various health issues such as frequent colds, chest pains, and nausea. Emotionally, it can manifest as anxiety, depression, irritability, and anger triggered by both minor and major life events. Cognitively, it may result in difficulty in concentration, memory, and...

The Sympathetic Nervous System

The Sympathetic Nervous System

Psychological Responses to Stress

Psychological Responses to Stress

Psychological responses to stress encompass the various cognitive and emotional reactions individuals experience when faced with challenging or threatening situations, such as a job loss. Prolonged exposure to stressors can disturb emotional balance, increasing negative emotions (e.g., anxiety and sadness) and diminishing positive emotions (e.g., joy and satisfaction). These persistent emotional shifts are associated with an increased risk of both physical illness and mental health issues, such...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 23, 2026

Using a Murine Model of Psychosocial Stress in Pregnancy as a Translationally Relevant Paradigm for Psychiatric Disorders in Mothers and Infants

Using a Murine Model of Psychosocial Stress in Pregnancy as a Translationally Relevant Paradigm for Psychiatric Disorders in Mothers and Infants

Published on: June 13, 2021

Fetal programming of stress responses.

A M Ward¹, D I Phillips

¹MRC Unit, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK.

Stress (Amsterdam, Netherlands)

|March 21, 2012

Summary

Small size at birth, linked to low birthweight, increases the risk of coronary heart disease and related conditions like hypertension and Type 2 diabetes due to fetal growth adaptations.

Area of Science:

Developmental biology
Epidemiology
Endocrinology

Background:

Epidemiological studies link low birthweight to increased risks of coronary heart disease, hypertension, and Type 2 diabetes.
This association is hypothesized to stem from fetal nutrient supply-demand imbalances during gestation.

Purpose of the Study:

To explore the long-term physiological adaptations resulting from intrauterine growth restriction.
To investigate the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathoadrenal system in mediating these risks.

Main Methods:

Review of epidemiological data on birth size and long-term health outcomes.
Analysis of experimental animal data and human observational studies on endocrine and stress response systems.

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Last Updated: May 23, 2026

Using a Murine Model of Psychosocial Stress in Pregnancy as a Translationally Relevant Paradigm for Psychiatric Disorders in Mothers and Infants

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Main Results:

Fetal nutrient imbalances trigger adaptive metabolic and endocrine changes, benefiting short-term survival but leading to long-term maladaptation.
Alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathoadrenal system set points are observed in association with reduced fetal growth.

Conclusions:

Intrauterine factors significantly influence long-term stress response programming.
These programming effects may explain the increased risk of chronic diseases observed in individuals with low birthweight.