[Moxa stick on garlic for treatment of plantar warts]

Definition A diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is a chronic, non-healing wound that develops in individuals with diabetes. It typically occurs on pressure-bearing areas such as the heel, metatarsal heads, or hallux, and carries a high risk of infection and amputation.Pathophysiology • The development of DFUs can be explained by four interconnected mechanisms: neuropathy, ischemia, infection, and impaired wound healing. • Neuropathy is the most common factor. Sensory neuropathy reduces pain perception,...

Amphotericin B is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent that exploits structural differences between fungal and mammalian cell membranes. Its amphipathic structure—featuring a hydrophobic polyene-lactone ring and a hydrophilic region containing mycosamine and carboxylic acid groups—enables selective binding to ergosterol, a sterol predominantly found in fungal plasma membranes. This selective interaction underlies the drug’s antifungal activity, although weak binding to cholesterol contributes to...

In the intricate landscape of the gastric lumen, excessive acid secretion disrupts the natural defense mechanisms, weakening the mucus-bicarbonate barrier. This vulnerability allows pepsin to infiltrate epithelial cells, digesting mucosal proteins and triggering erosion, leading to ulcer formation.
In this scenario, mucosal protective agents like sucralfate play an essential role. Sucralfate, a complex of sulfated sucrose and aluminum hydroxide, demonstrates its usefulness in acidic conditions,...

Helicobacter pylori, a resilient gram-negative bacterium, can thrive in the stomach's harsh, acidic environment. Infection with H. pylori leads to a cascade of events within the stomach lining. One of the critical disruptions caused by this bacterium is the interference with somatostatin production, a hormone responsible for regulating acid secretion. This interference tips the balance, escalating acid secretion and diminishing bicarbonate levels. This imbalance compromises the defensive...

The gastric mucosa produces prostaglandins E2 (PGE2) and prostacyclin (PGI2), crucial in maintaining gastric health. They exert cytoprotective effects, including increasing bicarbonate secretion, releasing protective mucin, reducing gastric acid output, and preventing harmful vasoconstriction. These effects are mediated through various receptors, such as EP1, EP2, EP3, and EP4.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can induce peptic ulcers by inhibiting cyclooxygenase, decreasing...

α-glucosidase inhibitors, including acarbose (Precose), miglitol (Glyset), and voglibose (Voglib) (primarily available in Asia), are drugs that control blood sugar levels by delaying the digestion of starch and disaccharides. They achieve this by inhibiting α-glucosidase enzymes in the intestine, which slow the absorption of carbohydrates in the intestine, which in turn leads to a prolonged release of the glucoregulatory hormone GLP-1 from intestinal L-cells.
Acarbose and miglitol are typically...