Related Experiment Video
Updated: May 23, 2026
07:56
Scanning Skeletal Remains for Bone Mineral Density in Forensic Contexts
Published on: January 29, 2018
Sex estimation in a modern American osteological sample using a discriminant function analysis from the calcaneus
Daniel L DiMichele1, M Katherine Spradley
1Department of Anthropology, 601 University Drive, Texas State University-San Marcos, San Marcos, TX 78666, United States. dimicheled@gmail.com
Forensic Science International
|April 20, 2012
Summary
Forensic sex estimation using calcaneus bone measurements, including posterior circumference, offers a reliable method for identifying sex from damaged skeletal remains. This study developed updated discriminant functions for modern North American populations.
Area of Science:
- Forensic anthropology
- Bioarchaeology
- Human osteology
Background:
- Accurate sex estimation is crucial in forensic anthropology, especially when standard skeletal indicators are damaged or missing.
- The calcaneus (heel bone) presents a potentially valuable, yet underutilized, element for sex determination due to its robustness.
- Previous research established the calcaneus's utility, but modern population-specific data and refined methodologies are needed.
Purpose of the Study:
- To develop updated, population-specific discriminant functions for sex estimation using calcaneus measurements from a modern North American sample.
- To introduce and evaluate the utility of a new measurement, posterior circumference, for enhancing calcaneus-based sex estimation accuracy.
- To provide reliable forensic tools for sex determination from partial or damaged skeletal remains.
Main Methods:
- Measurements of maximum length, load-arm length, load-arm width, and posterior circumference were taken from 320 adult calcanei (136 female, 184 male) from The William Bass Skeletal Collection.
- Individuals were born between 1900-1985, with fused diaphyses and no signs of pathology or damage.
- Discriminant function analysis was performed using SAS 9.1.3 to establish classification rates.
Main Results:
- A discriminant function utilizing all four measurements achieved an overall cross-validated classification accuracy of 86.69%.
- Correct classification rates were 88.64% for females and 84.75% for males.
- The inclusion of posterior circumference showed promise in advancing the accuracy of sex estimation from the calcaneus.
Conclusions:
- Calcaneus measurements, particularly incorporating posterior circumference, provide a reliable method for forensic sex estimation in modern North American populations.
- Updated discriminant functions are necessary due to secular and microevolutionary changes affecting skeletal morphology.
- Further research should explore diverse populations to ensure the broad applicability of forensic sex estimation techniques.
Related Concept Videos
01:18Classification of Bones
The bones of the human skeletal system are of varied shapes, sizes, and functions. They can be classified based on their shape and function into four major classes: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Some classifications include a fifth type, the sesamoid bones, as a separate class, whereas others categorize them under short bones.
Long and Short Bones
The appendicular skeleton, particularly the upper and lower limbs, is primarily made of long and short bones. The long...
Long and Short Bones
The appendicular skeleton, particularly the upper and lower limbs, is primarily made of long and short bones. The long...
01:15One-Way ANOVA: Unequal Sample Sizes
One-way ANOVA can be performed on three or more samples of unequal sizes. However, calculations get complicated when sample sizes are not always the same. So, while performing ANOVA with unequal samples size, the following equation is used: