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Introduction to the Human Microbiota

Introduction to the Human Microbiota

Microorganisms colonize various regions of the human body, including the mouth, nasal passages, throat, stomach, intestines, urogenital tract, and skin. The total number of microbial cells is estimated to range from 10¹³ to 10¹⁴—comparable to, or exceeding, the number of human somatic cells. This host–microbiome relationship has led to the conceptualization of humans as supraorganisms, wherein microbial communities perform vital roles in development, immunity, and disease...

Development of Human Microbiota

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The human microbiota begins developing at birth and undergoes continual change as we age. Infancy marks a critical period of microbial sensitivity, offering a “window of opportunity” during which beneficial microbes help mature the immune system. By age three, children typically develop a more stable and diverse microbial community. Newborns acquire microbes from their immediate environment; vaginal delivery favors maternal vaginal microbes, while cesarean births favor microbes from the skin...

Functions of the Gut Microbiota

Functions of the Gut Microbiota

The gut microbiota includes trillions of microorganisms that colonize the human gastrointestinal tract, including bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi. This complex ecosystem plays a critical role in maintaining intestinal and systemic health. Most of these microbes inhabit the large intestine, establishing a relatively stable and diverse community that contributes to gut homeostasis through various metabolic, immunological, and protective mechanisms.Dominant bacterial phyla, such as...

The Skin Microbiota

The Skin Microbiota

The human skin serves as a complex ecosystem inhabited by a diverse community of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. This microbiome plays a critical role in maintaining skin health and defending against pathogenic invaders. The composition of microbial communities varies significantly across different regions of the body, influenced primarily by the local levels of moisture and sebum.Regional Variation in Skin MicrobiotaCutibacterium acnes predominantly colonizes sebaceous...

Microbiota of the Large Intestine

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The large intestine hosts the most densely populated microbial ecosystem in the human body. This complex community primarily consists of anaerobic bacteria, with Bacillota (formerly Firmicutes) and Bacteroidota (formerly Bacteroidetes) as the predominant groups. The distribution of these microbes varies along different sections of the large intestine, influenced by local environmental factors such as oxygen availability and nutrient composition.The cecum, located at the beginning of the large...

The Oral Microbiota

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The oral microbiome includes a complex ecosystem comprising over 700 microbial species, identified through genomic sequencing and culture-based analyses to date. This community includes a core microbiome, found universally among individuals, and a variable component influenced by environmental factors such as diet, lifestyle, and host genetics. Site-specific conditions, including oxygen gradients, pH levels, and nutrient availability, determine the spatial distribution of these microorganisms...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 21, 2026

Co-culture of Living Microbiome with Microengineered Human Intestinal Villi in a Gut-on-a-Chip Microfluidic Device

Co-culture of Living Microbiome with Microengineered Human Intestinal Villi in a Gut-on-a-Chip Microfluidic Device

Published on: August 30, 2016

The microbiome as a human organ.

F Baquero¹, C Nombela

¹Department of Microbiology, Ramón y Cajal University Hospital, IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain. baquero@bitmailer.net

Clinical Microbiology and Infection : the Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

|June 1, 2012

Summary

The human body hosts a complex intestinal microbiome, considered a vital organ. Alterations in this microbiome can lead to disease, with diagnostics and treatments like microbiota transplantation rapidly advancing.

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Area of Science:

Microbiology
Human Physiology
Genomics

Background:

The human body comprises cells from Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea, including a complex intestinal microbiome.
The microbiome, the "last human organ," is under active research for its role in health and disease.
It is inherited, likely through 'small world' power law dynamics in newborns.

Discussion:

Microbiome alterations can negatively impact individual and collective health.
Metagenomic studies are crucial for diagnosing microbiome-related diseases.
Microbiota transplantation is an emerging therapeutic option for microbiome pathology.

Key Insights:

The human microbiome is an inherited, complex organ with its own physiology and pathology.
Metagenomics and microbiota transplantation are key tools in understanding and treating microbiome disorders.
The field of microbiomology is emerging as a new medical specialty.

Outlook:

Further research into microbiome inheritance and dynamics is expected.
Advancements in metagenomic diagnostics will improve disease identification.
Microbiota transplantation techniques will likely become more refined and accessible.