Related Experiment Video
Updated: May 20, 2026

The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition
Published on: February 19, 2018
The language of landmarks: the role of background knowledge in indoor wayfinding
Julia Frankenstein1, Sven Brüssow, Felix Ruzzoli
1Center for Cognitive Science, Freiburg University, Friedrichstrasse 50, 79098, Freiburg, Germany. julia.frankenstein@cognition.uni-freiburg.de
Abstract:
To effectively wayfind through unfamiliar buildings, humans infer their relative position to target locations not only by interpreting geometric layouts, especially length of line of sight, but also by using background knowledge to evaluate landmarks with respect to their probable spatial relation to a target. Questionnaire results revealed that participants have consistent background knowledge about the relative position of target locations. Landmarks were rated significantly differently with respect to their spatial relation to targets. In addition, results from a forced-choice task comparing snapshots of a virtual environment revealed that background knowledge influenced wayfinding decisions. We suggest that landmarks are interpreted semantically with respect to their function and spatial relation to the target location and thereby influence wayfinding decisions. This indicates that background knowledge plays a role in wayfinding.
Related Concept Videos
The Nativist Approach
Design Example: Identifying the Locations of Monuments in the Field Using Global Positioning System Device
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Language and Cognition
Cognitive Learning
E. C. Tolman's theory of purposive behavior emphasizes that much behavior is goal-directed. He argued that to understand behavior, we must look at the entire sequence of actions leading to a goal. For instance, high school students study hard, not just due to past reinforcement but also to achieve the goal of getting into a good college.
Tolman introduced the idea that behavior is influenced by...
Local Attraction

