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Urea Cycle

Urea Cycle

The urea cycle describes how liver cells convert ammonia to urea. Ammonia is a toxic waste product of protein catabolism. Land animals must convert ammonia into the less toxic urea which can be safely eliminated by the kidneys through urine. Marine animals excrete ammonia directly, and the surrounding water dilutes the ammonia to safe levels.

Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism

Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism

Nitrogen is a very important element for life because it is a major constituent of proteins and nucleic acids. It is a macronutrient, and in nature, it is recycled from organic compounds and stored in the form of ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrate, nitrite, or nitrogen gas by many metabolic processes. Many of these metabolic processes are carried out only by prokaryotes.
The largest pool of nitrogen available in the terrestrial ecosystem is gaseous nitrogen (N2) from the air, but this nitrogen...

Comparative Excretory Systems

Comparative Excretory Systems

Animals have evolved different strategies for excretion, the removal of waste from the body. Most waste must be dissolved in water to be excreted, so an animal’s excretory strategy directly affects its water balance.

Inorganic Nitrogen Assimilation

Inorganic Nitrogen Assimilation

Nitrogen is an essential element in biological systems, forming a crucial component of proteins, nucleic acids, and other cellular constituents. Many bacteria and archaea acquire nitrogen in the form of nitrate (NO₃⁻) or ammonia (NH₃), which are then assimilated into biomolecules through specific enzymatic pathways.Assimilatory Nitrate ReductionWhen nitrate enters the cell, it undergoes a two-step reduction process known as assimilatory nitrate reduction. Initially, the enzyme nitrate reductase...

Metabolism of Chemolithotrophs

Metabolism of Chemolithotrophs

Chemolithotrophs are microorganisms that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic molecules such as hydrogen gas (H₂), ammonia (NH₃), reduced sulfur compounds (H₂S, S²⁻), and ferrous iron (Fe²⁺). Unlike heterotrophic organisms that rely on organic carbon, chemolithotrophs transfer electrons from these inorganic donors to the electron transport chain (ETC), generating a proton motive force (PMF) that drives ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation. However, because inorganic electron donors...

Amino Acid Catabolism

Amino Acid Catabolism

Microorganisms rely on proteins as an essential carbon and energy source, particularly in environments with limited polysaccharides or lipids. However, proteins are too large to cross the plasma membrane unaided, necessitating enzymatic degradation. Microbes secrete extracellular proteases and peptidases that hydrolyze proteins into peptides, which can then be transported across the membrane. Once inside the cell, intracellular proteases degrade these peptides into free amino acids, which...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 19, 2026

Electrochemically and Bioelectrochemically Induced Ammonium Recovery

Electrochemically and Bioelectrochemically Induced Ammonium Recovery

Published on: January 22, 2015

Ammonium metabolism in humans.

Maria M Adeva¹, Gema Souto, Natalia Blanco

¹Hospital General Juan Cardona, La Coruña, Spain. madevaa@yahoo.com

Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental

|August 28, 2012

Summary

Ammonium ions are vital for cell metabolism but can cause hyperammonemia in conditions like liver failure. Understanding ammonium homeostasis is key to managing metabolic disorders and neurological complications.

Area of Science:

Biochemistry
Physiology
Metabolic pathways

Background:

Ammonium ions are central to cellular metabolism, produced and consumed by enzymes like glutamine synthetase, glutaminase, and glutamate dehydrogenase.
The liver's urea cycle is the primary route for ammonium removal in humans, while kidneys play a role in excretion based on acid-base balance.
Organs like the brain and skeletal muscle can sequester ammonium during hyperammonemia, and gas phase ammonia suggests roles for breath and skin in nitrogen elimination.

Purpose of the Study:

To elucidate the complex role of ammonium ions in human physiology and disease.
To explore the mechanisms of ammonium homeostasis and the consequences of its disruption.
To investigate the contribution of various organs to ammonium metabolism and elimination.

Main Methods:

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Electrochemically and Bioelectrochemically Induced Ammonium Recovery

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Review of biochemical pathways involved in ammonium production and consumption.
Analysis of physiological roles of organs in ammonium homeostasis.
Examination of clinical implications of altered ammonium levels, particularly in liver disease and urea cycle disorders.

Main Results:

Ammonium homeostasis is tightly regulated through metabolic pathways and organ-specific functions.
Liver failure significantly disrupts ammonium homeostasis, leading to hyperammonemia due to impaired clearance and shunting of portal blood.
Hyperammonemia is associated with urea cycle disorders and can precede conditions like cerebral edema, often accompanied by respiratory alkalosis.

Conclusions:

Ammonium metabolism is a critical physiological process with far-reaching implications for overall health.
Disruptions in ammonium homeostasis, especially in liver disease, pose significant health risks.
Further research is needed to fully understand the role of ammonium in conditions like hepatic encephalopathy and the mechanisms behind associated respiratory alkalosis.