β-Pinene inhibited germination and early growth involves membrane peroxidation

β-Pinene, an oxygenated monoterpene, is abundantly found in the environment and widely occurring in plants as a constituent of essential oils. We investigated the phytotoxicity of β-pinene against two grassy (Phalaris minor, Echinochloa crus-galli) and one broad-leaved (Cassia occidentalis) weeds in terms of germination and root and shoot growth. β-Pinene (0.02-0.80 mg/ml) inhibited the germination, root length, and shoot length of test weeds in a dose-response manner. The inhibitory effect of β-pinene was greater in grassy weeds and on root growth than on shoot growth. β-Pinene (0.04-0.80 mg/ml) reduced the root length in P. minor, E. crus-galli, and C. occidentalis over that in the control by 58-60, 44-92, and 26-85 %, respectively. In contrast, shoot length was reduced over the control by 45-97 % in P. minor, 48-78 % in E. crus-galli, and 11-75 % in C. occidentalis at similar concentrations. Further, we examined the impact of β-pinene on membrane integrity in P. minor as one of the possible mechanisms of action. Membrane integrity was evaluated in terms of lipid peroxidation, conjugated diene content, electrolyte leakage, and the activity of lipoxygenases (LOX). β-Pinene (≥0.04 mg/ml) enhanced electrolyte leakage by 23-80 %, malondialdehyde content by 15-67 %, hydrogen peroxide content by 9-39 %, and lipoxygenases activity by 38-383 % over that in the control. It indicated membrane peroxidation and loss of membrane integrity that could be the primary target of β-pinene. Even the enhanced (9-62 %) activity of protecting enzymes, peroxidases (POX), was not able to protect the membranes from β-pinene (0.04-0.20 mg/ml)-induced toxicity. In conclusion, our results show that β-pinene inhibits root growth of the tested weed species through disruption of membrane integrity as indicated by enhanced peroxidation, electrolyte leakage, and LOX activity despite the upregulation of POX activity.