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Transformation

Transformation

Microbial communities are dynamic environments where cell lysis releases free DNA into the surroundings. Other cells can take up this extracellular DNA through a process known as transformation.When a cell incorporates this foreign DNA into its genome, resulting in genetic modification, the process is known as transformation. Cells capable of this process are termed competent. Competence can be natural, as observed in certain bacteria and archaea, or artificially induced in the...

Epigenetic Regulation

Epigenetic Regulation

Epigenetic changes alter the physical structure of the DNA without changing the genetic sequence and often regulate whether genes are turned on or off. This regulation ensures that each cell produces only proteins necessary for its function. For example, proteins that promote bone growth are not produced in muscle cells. Epigenetic mechanisms play an essential role in healthy development. Conversely, precisely regulated epigenetic mechanisms are disrupted in diseases like cancer.
X-chromosome...

Epigenetic Regulation

Epigenetic Regulation

Epigenetic mechanisms play an essential role in healthy development. Conversely, precisely regulated epigenetic mechanisms are disrupted in diseases like cancer.

Chromatin Modification in iPS Cells

Chromatin Modification in iPS Cells

Chromatin modification alters gene expression; therefore, scientists can add histone-modifying enzymes, histone variants, and chromatin remodeling complexes to somatic cells to aid reprogramming into pluripotent stem (iPS) cells.
Compact chromatin makes reprogramming difficult. Enzymes, such as histone demethylases and acetyltransferases, are often added during reprogramming to loosen the chromatin, making the DNA more accessible to transcription factors. Molecules that inhibit histone...

Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Somatic to iPS Cell Reprogramming

Reprogramming alters the gene expression in somatic cells, transforming them into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells over several generations. Scientists can reprogram cells by introducing genes for four transcription factors—Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc (OSKM) by viral or non-viral methods. These factors are also known as Yamanaka factors after Shinya Yamanaka, who first generated iPS cells using mouse skin cells. Yamanaka was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2012 for this...

Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Methods of Nuclear Reprogramming

Nuclear reprogramming is a process of transforming one cell type into an unrelated cell type by epigenetic changes that alter the cell’s original gene expression pattern. Such epigenetic changes force cells to express a different set of genes, which play a significant role in inducing transformation into other cell types. Nuclear reprogramming offers applications in reproductive cloning for livestock propagation and regenerative medicine — developing patient-specific cells for injury repair.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 18, 2026

In Vitro Evaluation of Oncogenic Transformation in Human Mammary Epithelial Cells

In Vitro Evaluation of Oncogenic Transformation in Human Mammary Epithelial Cells

Published on: September 24, 2020

Epigenetic changes during cell transformation.

Bernard W Futscher¹

¹Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy and The University of Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724-5024, USA. bfutscher@azcc.arizona.edu

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

|September 8, 2012

Summary

Cancer develops through genetic and epigenetic changes. Early epigenetic events occur stepwise before cell immortalization, while later changes are smoother, offering potential for early detection and therapy.

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Last Updated: May 18, 2026

In Vitro Evaluation of Oncogenic Transformation in Human Mammary Epithelial Cells

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Induction and Analysis of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition

Induction and Analysis of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition

Published on: August 27, 2013

Area of Science:

Oncology
Epigenetics
Molecular Biology

Background:

Malignant cancer arises from normal cells via a multistep process involving genetic and epigenetic alterations.
Epigenetic changes, including DNA methylation and histone modifications, are crucial in human carcinogenesis.
Understanding these pathoepigenetic changes is key to deciphering cancer formation.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the causes and consequences of pathoepigenetic changes during cancer development.
To analyze the distinct patterns of epigenetic alterations occurring before and after cell immortalization.
To explore the role of environmental factors in driving epigenetic changes in cancer.

Main Methods:

Utilized experimentally tractable human cell line models reflecting clinical molecular alterations.
Examined epigenetic events, specifically DNA methylation and histone modifications.
Correlated epigenetic changes with cellular events like proliferation barriers, stasis, and telomere dysfunction.

Main Results:

Early epigenetic events in cancer formation occur in a stepwise manner preceding cell immortalization.
These early epigenetic steps are linked to cellular transitions through stasis and telomere dysfunction.
Post-immortalization, stressors like environmental toxicants induce smoother, progressive epigenetic changes.

Conclusions:

Epigenetic alterations play a critical, time-dependent role in malignant transformation.
The stepwise nature of early epigenetic changes contrasts with the progressive changes seen later in carcinogenesis.
A deeper understanding of these epigenetic lesions could lead to novel clinical applications for cancer detection and treatment.