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Pilot and Numeric Relaying01:21

Pilot and Numeric Relaying

Pilot relaying is a type of differential protection used in power systems. It compares electrical quantities at the terminals of equipment via a communication channel instead of direct relay interconnection. This method is essential for transmission lines where the terminals are far apart, typically up to 80 km for lines with 69 to 115 kV ratings. Four types of communication channels are used for pilot relaying:
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Diencephalon: Thalamus and Information Relay01:27

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The thalamus, often called “the gateway to the cerebral cortex,” is vital in processing and directing sensory and motor signals throughout the brain. Almost all inputs destined for the cerebral cortex, except for olfactory signals, are relayed through the thalamus. The thalamus is  a sophisticated relay station, channeling information from various brain regions to the cerebral cortex, as well as a filter, prioritizing certain signals over others based on current physiological states or needs.
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Neurons, the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, communicate through complex electrochemical signals that underpin all cognitive and bodily functions. This communication is primarily facilitated by a process involving the generation and propagation of an action potential along the axon of the neuron. When the internal electrical charge of a neuron surpasses a certain threshold, an action potential is triggered. This rapid change in voltage travels swiftly along the axon to the...

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Related Experiment Video

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Electrophysiological Investigations of Retinogeniculate and Corticogeniculate Synapse Function
09:09

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Published on: August 7, 2019

Performance limitations of relay neurons.

Rahul Agarwal1, Sridevi V Sarma

  • 1Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. rahul.jhu@gmail.com

Plos Computational Biology
|September 14, 2012
PubMed
Summary

This study models how sensory relay cells transmit information. We found that modulating input frequency and properties critically influence signal transmission reliability, impacting perception and neural disorders.

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Computational Neuroscience
  • Systems Neuroscience

Background:

  • Relay cells in sensory systems process two inputs: driving (information) and modulating (transmission control).
  • The visual thalamus exemplifies this, with retinal driving input and cortical/brainstem modulating input influencing visual perception based on attention and goals.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To analyze a biophysical model of a relay cell using systems theory.
  • To derive analytic bounds on information transmission reliability based on electrophysiological properties, modulating input, and driving signal parameters.

Main Methods:

  • Developed a biophysical model of a relay neuron.
  • Applied systems theoretic tools to establish analytic bounds on signal transmission.
  • Assumed sinusoidal modulating input and exponentially distributed driving pulse intervals.

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  • Analysis applicable to any Nth order model without spontaneous firing and with a refractory period.

    • Main Results:

    • Derived bounds on relay reliability, validated by simulations of second and third-order models.
    • Showed that increased modulating input frequency or decreased DC offset enhances signal relay.
    • Demonstrated how neuron biophysics dictate necessary oscillatory patterns in modulating input for precise sensory information relay.

    Conclusions:

    • Biophysical properties and input signal characteristics jointly determine sensory information relay fidelity.
    • The derived bounds predict neural activity patterns in basal ganglia (health, Parkinson's disease, deep brain stimulation) and thalamic rhythms during varying attentional states.