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Updated: May 18, 2026
Molecular Probe Optimization to Determine Cell Mortality in a Photosynthetic Organism (Microcystis aeruginosa) Using Flow Cytometry
Published on: January 29, 2016
Biomarkers and molecular probes for cell death imaging and targeted therapeutics
Bryan A Smith1, Bradley D Smith
1Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Notre Dame Integrated Imaging Facility, 236 Nieuwland Science Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
Abstract:
Cell death is a critically important biological process. Disruption of homeostasis, either by excessive or deficient cell death, is a hallmark of many pathological conditions. Recent research advances have greatly increased our molecular understanding of cell death and its role in a range of diseases and therapeutic treatments. Central to these ongoing research and clinical efforts is the need for imaging technologies that can locate and identify cell death in a wide array of in vitro and in vivo biomedical samples with varied spatiotemporal requirements. This review article summarizes community efforts over the past five years to identify useful biomarkers for dead and dying cells, and to develop molecular probes that target these biomarkers for optical, radionuclear, or magnetic resonance imaging. Apoptosis biomarkers are classified as either intracellular (caspase enzymes, mitochondrial membrane potential, cytosolic proteins) or extracellular (plasma membrane phospholipids, membrane potential, surface exposed histones). Necrosis, autophagy, and senescence biomarkers are described, as well as unexplored cell death biomarkers. The article discusses possible chemotherapeutic and theranostic strategies, and concludes with a summary of current challenges and expected eventual rewards of clinical cell death imaging.
Insights
This review highlights advances in molecular imaging for cell death, focusing on biomarkers and probes for optical, radionuclear, and magnetic resonance imaging to aid disease diagnosis and treatment.
Area of Science:
- Biomedical Imaging
- Molecular Biology
- Pathology
Background:
- Cell death is crucial for biological homeostasis; its dysregulation is implicated in numerous diseases.
- Understanding cell death mechanisms is vital for developing new therapeutic strategies.
- Advanced imaging is needed to detect and characterize cell death in biomedical samples.
Purpose of the Study:
- To review recent advancements in molecular imaging of cell death.
- To summarize the identification of cell death biomarkers and the development of targeted molecular probes.
- To discuss the clinical applications and future directions of cell death imaging.
Main Methods:
- Literature review of research over the past five years.
- Classification of apoptosis biomarkers (intracellular and extracellular).
- Description of biomarkers for necrosis, autophagy, and senescence.
Main Results:
- Identified key biomarkers for various cell death modalities.
- Detailed development of molecular probes for optical, radionuclear, and magnetic resonance imaging.
- Explored potential chemotherapeutic and theranostic applications.
Conclusions:
- Cell death imaging holds significant promise for disease diagnosis and treatment monitoring.
- Further research is needed to overcome current challenges in clinical translation.
- Development of novel probes and imaging techniques will enhance therapeutic strategies.
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