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Related Concept Videos

Reinforcement Schedules01:24

Reinforcement Schedules

Positive reinforcement is a powerful method for teaching new behaviors to both animals and humans. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments using rats in a Skinner box. When a rat pressed a lever, it received a food pellet. This immediate reward encouraged the rat to repeat the behavior. This method, where a reward follows every instance of the behavior, is known as continuous reinforcement. It is highly effective for establishing new behaviors quickly.
Once a behavior is learned,...
Operant Conditioning Intervention01:24

Operant Conditioning Intervention

Operant conditioning serves as a foundational principle in therapeutic interventions aimed at modifying maladaptive behaviors. Central to this approach is the notion that behaviors, both adaptive and maladaptive, are learned through reinforcement. By analyzing the environmental factors that reinforce problematic behaviors, clinicians can design interventions to weaken these reinforcements and replace maladaptive behaviors with healthier alternatives.
In operant conditioning, behaviors that are...
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers01:23

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

In psychology, reinforcement is a key concept in behavior modification. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments involving rats in what is known as a Skinner box. The rats learned to press a lever to receive food, a primary reinforcer that fulfilled their innate need for nourishment.
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Instinctive Drift01:05

Instinctive Drift

Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of animals to revert to their innate behaviors despite repeated reinforcement. Breland and Breland demonstrated this concept in an experiment with a raccoon. The raccoon was trained to pick up two coins and place them in a container in exchange for food. Initially, the raccoon learned to associate the coins with food, making them a conditioned stimulus or a substitute for food. However, over time, the raccoon became less willing to put the coins into the...
Mate Choice01:20

Mate Choice

Mate choice—the decision about whom to mate with—is a type of natural selection, since animals must reproduce to pass down their genes. Mate choice is also called intersexual selection because the behavior occurs between the sexes.
Operant Conditioning01:21

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, a key concept in behavioral psychology, involves using reinforcement and punishment to alter the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. B.F. introduced this type of conditioning. Skinner focused on voluntary behaviors and the consequences that follow them, influencing whether these behaviors will be strengthened or diminished.
Reinforcement in operant conditioning can be positive or negative, both of which serve to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Positive...

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Behavioral economic analysis of pigeons' token accumulation and reinforcer demand in a laboratory-based token economy.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 18, 2026

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons (Columba Livia)
06:14

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons (Columba Livia)

Published on: September 7, 2018

Risky choice in pigeons: preference for amount variability using a token-reinforcement system.

Carla H Lagorio1, Timothy D Hackenberg

  • 1Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire, 105 Garfield Ave., Eau Claire, WI 54702, USA.lagorich@uwec.edu

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
|September 26, 2012
PubMed
Summary

Pigeons preferred variable rewards over fixed ones, especially when the fixed option offered fewer tokens. This risk-prone behavior, linked to token presentation, highlights systematic risk sensitivity in choice patterns.

Keywords:
adjusting amountgamblingkey peckpigeonreinforcer amountrisky choicetoken reinforcement

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Area of Science:

  • Behavioral neuroscience
  • Animal behavior and cognition

Background:

  • Pigeons exhibit complex decision-making strategies when faced with choices involving variable and fixed reinforcers.
  • Understanding the factors influencing risk-prone behavior is crucial for behavioral economics and reinforcement learning.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate pigeons' preference between variable and fixed token reinforcers.
  • To determine the role of token presentation in maintaining risk-prone choice patterns.
  • To examine the relationship between choice preferences and choice latencies.

Main Methods:

  • Pigeons made repeated choices between fixed and variable token amounts, with tokens exchangeable for food.
  • The fixed option varied parametrically (2, 4, 6, 8 tokens), while the variable option ranged from 0 to 12 tokens.
  • Tokens were systematically removed to assess their role in preference maintenance.

Main Results:

  • Pigeons strongly preferred the variable option when it offered equal or greater potential tokens than the fixed option.
  • Preference for the variable option decreased only when the fixed option offered significantly more tokens.
  • Removing tokens reduced or eliminated the preference for the variable option, indicating tokens' importance.

Conclusions:

  • Systematic risk sensitivity can be achieved concerning reinforcer amount in pigeons.
  • Token presentation appears critical in establishing and maintaining risk-prone choice patterns.
  • Choice latencies may serve as useful indicators of reinforcer value.