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Related Concept Videos

Meiosis II02:02

Meiosis II

Meiosis II entails cell division and segregation of the sister chromatids, resulting in the production of four unique haploid gametes. The steps for meiosis II are similar to mitosis, except that meiosis II occurs in haploid cells, whereas mitosis occurs in diploid cells.
The timing and cell division patterns of meiosis differ between males and females. In male meiosis, the centrosomes are part of the formation of the meiotic spindle. However, in oocytes, including that of humans, Drosophila,...
Meiosis II01:57

Meiosis II

Meiosis II is the second and final stage of meiosis. It relies on the haploid cells produced during meiosis I, each of which contain only 23 chromosomes—one from each homologous initial pair. Importantly, each chromosome in these cells is composed of two joined copies, and when these cells enter meiosis II, the goal is to separate such sister chromatids using the same microtubule-based network employed in other division processes. The result of meiosis II is two haploid cells, each containing...
Nondisjunction01:21

Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate correctly and move to the opposite poles of the cells. This produces daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers.  Nondisjunction is common during anaphase I or anaphase II of meiosis.  Mutations in synaptonemal complex proteins that attach homologous chromosomes increase the chances of nondisjunction in anaphase I of meiosis I. In contrast, mutations in topoisomerases and condensins that hold sister...
Replication in Eukaryotes01:29

Replication in Eukaryotes

In eukaryotic cells, DNA replication is highly conserved and tightly regulated. Multiple linear chromosomes must be duplicated with high fidelity before cell division, so there are many proteins that fulfill specialized roles in the replication process. Replication occurs in three phases: initiation, elongation, and termination, and ends with two complete sets of chromosomes in the nucleus.
Many Proteins Orchestrate Replication at the Origin
Eukaryotic replication follows many of the same...
Replication in Eukaryotes02:31

Replication in Eukaryotes

Overview
Meiosis vs. Mitosis02:57

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

Cell division is necessary for growth and reproduction in organisms. Mitosis aids cell growth and development by dividing somatic cells. In contrast, meiosis causes the division of germ cells and plays an essential role in sexual reproduction. Due to their unique functional requirements, mitosis and meiosis differ from each other in multiple aspects.
Before the start of mitosis and meiosis I, the cell synthesizes DNA, resulting in two homologous copies of each chromosome. DNA synthesis is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 17, 2026

Manipulation of Ploidy in Caenorhabditis elegans
07:54

Manipulation of Ploidy in Caenorhabditis elegans

Published on: March 15, 2018

E2F8 is essential for polyploidization in mammalian cells.

Shusil K Pandit1, Bart Westendorp, Sathidpak Nantasanti

  • 1Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, The Netherlands.

Nature Cell Biology
|October 16, 2012
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Polyploidization in mammalian liver cells is controlled by E2F8 and E2F1. E2F8 represses polyploidization, while E2F1 activates it, impacting cell division and liver function.

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Last Updated: May 17, 2026

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Published on: March 15, 2018

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Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae
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Area of Science:

  • Cell Biology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Polyploidization, common in mammalian hepatocytes, lacks a clear molecular mechanism and biological significance.
  • Hepatocyte polyploidization in rodents involves incomplete cytokinesis, occurring post-weaning and increasing with age.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the molecular mechanism and biological significance of hepatocyte polyploidization.
  • To identify key regulators of polyploidization in mammalian liver cells.

Main Methods:

  • Investigated the role of atypical E2F8 in mouse hepatocyte polyploidization.
  • Analyzed the impact of E2f8 deficiency and E2f1 loss on cell division and gene expression.
  • Examined the effect of preventing polyploidization on liver differentiation, zonation, metabolism, and regeneration.

Main Results:

  • Atypical E2F8 is induced post-weaning and is essential for hepatocyte binucleation and polyploidization.
  • E2f8 deficiency increases cytokinesis-promoting gene expression, inhibiting polyploidization.
  • Loss of E2f1 enhances polyploidization and rescues the defect in E2F-deficient hepatocytes.
  • E2F8 and E2F1 bind to a common set of target promoters.
  • Preventing polyploidization by inactivating atypical E2Fs does not affect liver differentiation, zonation, metabolism, or regeneration.

Conclusions:

  • E2F8 acts as a repressor, and E2F1 as an activator in a transcriptional network governing mammalian cell polyploidization.
  • Polyploidization is not indicative of terminal differentiation or senescence, challenging long-standing hypotheses.