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Updated: May 17, 2026

Scalable Syntheses of Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide using Cascade Design Oxidation and Highly Basic Reduction Reactions
Published on: July 3, 2025
Birch reduction of graphite. Edge and interior functionalization by hydrogen
Zhiqiang Yang1, Yanqiu Sun, Lawrence B Alemany
1Department of Chemistry, Shared Equipment Authority, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States.
Abstract:
The Birch reduction (lithium in liquid ammonia) of graphite gives a highly reduced, exfoliated product that is free of lithium. Edge and interior hydrogenation were demonstrated by solid-state (13)C NMR spectroscopy. Elemental analysis of a carefully purified sample allows the chemical composition to be expressed as (C(1.3)H)(n). Atomic force microscopy images showed that the reduced graphene was highly exfoliated. Hydrogen mapping by electron energy loss spectroscopy showed that the entire surface of the reduced sample was covered by hydrogen, consistent with the NMR studies also indicating that hydrogen was added in interior positions of the graphene lattice as well as along the edge. A large band gap (4 eV) further establishes the high level of hydrogenation.
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