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Related Concept Videos

Pneumonia I: Introduction01:29

Pneumonia I: Introduction

Pneumonia is an infection of the lower respiratory tract that leads to inflammation of the lung parenchyma, often resulting in the accumulation of inflammatory exudate in the alveoli and airways. Unlike the watery, low-protein fluid exudate in pulmonary edema, the exudate in this case is a thick fluid rich in immune cells, proteins, and debris produced during infection and inflammation.This impairs gas exchange and can lead to consolidation of lung tissue. The infection may be caused by a...
Pneumonia I: Introduction01:30

Pneumonia I: Introduction

Pneumonia is an acute respiratory infection that targets the lungs, specifically the alveoli. These tiny air sacs, essential for oxygen exchange, become engorged with pus and fluid, severely hindering breathing, decreasing oxygen absorption, and causing significant pain and discomfort during respiration.
Risk Factors
Various factors influence the likelihood of developing pneumonia. Age plays a crucial role, with infants, children under two, and individuals over 65 at increased risk due to their...
Pneumonia II: Pathophysiology01:29

Pneumonia II: Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of pneumonia involves the following steps:
Atypical Pneumonia01:14

Atypical Pneumonia

Atypical pneumonia, often caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, is a form of pulmonary infection that differs from the classical presentation of bacterial pneumonia in both its cause and clinical symptoms. Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a pleomorphic bacterium notable for its lack of a rigid cell wall. This structural characteristic imparts resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics and significantly influences the bacterium’s behavior within the human host.Other pathogens responsible for the disease include...
Bacterial Meningitis I: Introduction01:22

Bacterial Meningitis I: Introduction

Bacterial meningitis is a severe, life-threatening inflammation of the meninges, particularly the pia mater and arachnoid mater, affecting the subarachnoid space, ventricles, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). If untreated, it can lead to significant neurological complications or death.Causative AgentsCommon pathogens vary with age and immune status. In adults, major organisms include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae. Streptococcus agalactiae (group B...
Bacterial Meningitis II: Pathophysiology01:26

Bacterial Meningitis II: Pathophysiology

Bacterial meningitis typically begins when pathogens such as Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae colonize the nasopharynx and invade the bloodstream. This process is facilitated by bacterial virulence factors, such as polysaccharide capsules, which resist phagocytosis and complement-mediated killing. Less commonly, bacteria reach the central nervous system via contiguous spread from infections like otitis media or sinusitis, through congenital or acquired dural defects, or...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 16, 2026

Capsular Serotyping of Streptococcus pneumoniae Using the Quellung Reaction
04:25

Capsular Serotyping of Streptococcus pneumoniae Using the Quellung Reaction

Published on: February 24, 2014

Pneumococcal capsular switching: a historical perspective.

Kelly L Wyres1, Lotte M Lambertsen, Nicholas J Croucher

  • 1Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.

The Journal of Infectious Diseases
|November 24, 2012
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Capsular switching, a key driver of pneumococcal evolution, has occurred regularly for decades. Large DNA fragment recombination, including essential genes, predates vaccines and antibiotics, suggesting it

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Genetics
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Pneumococcal serotype prevalence changes due to serotype replacement and capsular switching.
  • The contribution of capsular switching to these changes and the role of vaccine pressure are unknown.
  • Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for pneumococcal disease control.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the historical occurrence and extent of capsular switching in pneumococcal populations.
  • To determine if vaccine-induced selective pressures drive capsular switching.
  • To analyze the genetic characteristics of capsular switching events.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of serotype and multilocus sequence typing data from 426 pneumococcal isolates (1937-2007).
  • Whole-genome sequencing of a subset of isolates to examine capsular switching events.
  • Estimation of recombination fragment lengths.

Main Results:

  • Identified 36 independent capsular switch events, with 18 analyzed in detail using whole-genome data.
  • Recombination fragment lengths ranged from approximately 19.0 kb to ≥ 58.2 kb.
  • Two events occurred before 1960, involving large DNA fragments including the capsular locus and penicillin-binding protein genes.

Conclusions:

  • Capsular switching is a consistent phenomenon in pneumococcal populations over the last 70 years.
  • Recombination of large DNA fragments (>30 kb), encompassing the capsular locus and PBP genes, predates vaccine and antibiotic use.
  • This recombination is likely an inherent aspect of pneumococcal evolutionary history.