Information is everywhere and its presentation—such as how and when items are presented—can impact our perceptions and decisions surrounding the info. This broad concept umbrellas framing effects—influences that occur due to the way information is framed in its appearance, whether it’s purely the order or the specific wording of a message. Let’s take a look at numerous ways in which two versions of something can objectively say the same thing, yet we respond in different ways based on the...

Directional terms are essential for describing the relative locations of different body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as "inferior to" another, or a physician might describe a tumor as "superficial to" a deeper body structure. These terms often use comparative terms in pairs to trace out the relative locations of one body part to another or descriptions of body tissues like the deeper ones from superficially present with reference to the body's upright...

The goodness-of-fit test is a type of hypothesis test which determines whether the data "fits" a particular distribution. For example, one may suspect that some anonymous data may fit a binomial distribution. A chi-square test (meaning the distribution for the hypothesis test is chi-square) can be used to determine if there is a fit. The null and alternative hypotheses may be written in sentences or stated as equations or inequalities. The test statistic for a goodness-of-fit test is given as...

Regression toward the mean (“RTM”) is a phenomenon in which extremely high or low values—for example, and individual’s blood pressure at a particular moment—appear closer to a group’s average upon remeasuring. Although this statistical peculiarity is the result of random error and chance, it has been problematic across various medical, scientific, financial and psychological applications. In particular, RTM, if not taken into account, can interfere when researchers try to extrapolate results...

Real gases do not perfectly obey the ideal gas laws, especially at high pressures and low temperatures or when they are about to condense to a liquid. These deviations occur due to intermolecular forces between gas molecules. Repulsive forces aid expansion and are significant when molecules are very close together, typically at high pressure. Attractive forces assist compression and have a longer range, being effective over several molecular diameters. They become significant when molecules are...

Faraday's law state that the induced emf is the negative change in the magnetic flux per unit of time. Any change in the magnetic field or change in the orientation of the area of the coil with respect to the magnetic field induces a voltage (emf). The magnetic flux measures the number of magnetic field lines through a given surface area. Magnetic flux is estimated from the integral of the dot product of the magnetic field vector and the area vector. The negative sign describes the direction in...