Fluorescent sensors of protein kinases: from basics to biomedical applications

Protein kinases constitute a major class of enzymes underlying essentially all biological processes. These enzymes present similar structural folds, yet their mechanism of action and of regulation vary largely, as well as their substrate specificity and their subcellular localization. Classical approaches to study the function/activity of protein kinases rely on radioactive endpoint assays, which do not allow for characterization of their dynamic activity in their native environment. The development of fluorescent biosensors has provided a whole new avenue for studying protein kinase behavior and regulation in living cells in real time with high spatial and temporal resolution. Two major classes of biosensors have been developed: genetically encoded single-chain fluorescence resonance energy transfer biosensors and peptide/protein biosensors coupled to small synthetic fluorophores which are sensitive to changes in their environment. In this review, we discuss the developments in fluorescent biosensor technology related to protein kinase sensing and the different strategies employed to monitor protein kinase activity, conformation, or relative abundance, as well as kinase regulation and subcellular dynamics in living cells. Moreover, we discuss their application in biomedical settings, for diagnostics and therapeutics, to image disease progression and monitor response to therapeutics, in drug discovery programs, for high-throughput screening assays, for postscreen characterization of drug candidates, and for clinical evaluation of novel drugs.