Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS) is an analytical technique that involves the electronic transitions of atoms in a flame, furnace, or plasma being excited by electromagnetic (EM) radiation. When these atoms absorb energy, they become excited and subsequently release energy as they return to their original state. This emitted light, or "fluorescence," is observed at a right angle to the incident beam. Both absorption and emission processes transpire at distinct wavelengths, which are...

During the 1950s, the landmark Robbers Cave experiment demonstrated that when groups must compete with one another, intergroup conflict, hostility, and even violence may result. At the Oklahoman summer camp, two troops of boys—termed the Rattlers and the Eagles—took part in a week-long tournament. During this time, their negativity culminated in derogatory name-calling, fistfights, and even vandalism and destruction of property. However, this work also revealed that such tension could be...