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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side of the...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
The radius has a nail-shaped head, and a short...

Muscles that Move the Arm

Muscles that Move the Arm

Nine muscles are involved in arm movements. Two of these, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, originate from the axial skeleton and are called axial muscles. The other seven originate from the scapula and are called the scapular muscles.
The pectoralis major has two origins. Its clavicular head originates on the medial half of the clavicle. In contrast, the sternocostal head originates on the costal cartilages of ribs 1-6, the sternum, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique of the...

Bones of the Lower Limb: Femur and Patella

Bones of the Lower Limb: Femur and Patella

The femur is the body's longest and strongest bone spanning the thigh region. Its head articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint. A minor indentation on the medial side of the femoral head, called the fovea capitis, serves as the site of attachment for the ligament of the head of the femur. This weak ligament spans the femur and acetabulum and supports the hip joint. The narrowed region below the head is the neck of the femur. The inclination angle between the neck...

Muscles that Move the Forearm

Muscles that Move the Forearm

The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
Forearm Flexors
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis are forearm flexors. The biceps brachii is made up of two heads. Its long head originates at the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, whereas that of the short head is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 15, 2026

Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty

Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty

Published on: July 5, 2011

Malunion of the proximal humerus.

¹Orthopaedic and Trauma Department, Rouen University Hospital, 1 rue de Germont, Rouen, France. fabrice.duparc@chu-rouen.fr

Orthopaedics & Traumatology, Surgery & Research : OTSR

|January 22, 2013

Summary

Managing proximal humerus fracture malunion requires precise characterization of bone displacement. Surgical correction aims to realign the humerus, but tuberosity osteotomy predicts poor outcomes in revision arthroplasty.

Area of Science:

Orthopedic Surgery
Musculoskeletal Research

Background:

Malunion of proximal humerus fractures presents complex management challenges after initial healing in an incorrect position.
This can occur following conservative treatment, internal fixation, or around joint prostheses, affecting various proximal humerus structures.

Purpose of the Study:

To outline the diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for managing proximal humerus fracture malunion.
To emphasize the importance of precise characterization and assessment of functional repercussions.

Main Methods:

Clinical evaluation to assess functional impact and determine the need for correction.
Radiographic imaging and computed tomography (CT) scans for detailed characterization and treatment planning.
Consideration of arthroscopic procedures (acromioplasty, tuberoplasty) for specific complications like biceps tenosynovitis or impingement.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 15, 2026

Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty

Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty

Published on: July 5, 2011

Main Results:

Accurate characterization of malunion involving tuberosities, humeral head, or epiphysis is crucial.
Metaphyseal malunion correction aims to restore proper proximal humeral alignment.
Tuberosity osteotomy is identified as a significant predictor of adverse outcomes in subsequent arthroplasty.

Conclusions:

Effective management of proximal humerus malunion hinges on accurate diagnosis and tailored treatment.
While corrective surgery can realign the bone, certain procedures like tuberosity osteotomy carry prognostic implications for future interventions.