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Solubility

Solubility

Solution, Solubility, and Solubility Equilibrium
A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of a solvent, the major component, and a solute, the minor component. The physical state of a solution—solid, liquid, or gas—is typically the same as that of the solvent. Solute concentrations are often described with qualitative terms such as dilute (of relatively low concentration) and concentrated (of relatively high concentration).
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The formation of a colloidal system is exemplified by an aqueous solution containing Cl− ions is introduced to another containing Ag+ ions, resulting in the precipitation of solid AgCl as extremely tiny crystals. Instead of settling out as a filterable precipitate, these crystals remain suspended in the liquid, showcasing a colloidal system.A colloidal system involves colloidal particles within the approximate range of 1 to 1000 nm in at least one dimension, dispersed in a medium called the...

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There is no one solvent that can dissolve every type of solute. Some substances that readily dissolve in a certain solvent might be insoluble in a different solvent. A simple way to predict which substances dissolve in which solvent is the phrase "like dissolves like". This means that polar substances, such as salt and sugar, dissolve in a polar substance like water. In contrast, non-polar substances are more soluble in non-polar solvents such as carbon tetrachloride.
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The free energy change associated with dissolving a solute in a liter of solvent is called the free energy of a solution, ΔGsolution. The overall ΔGsolution is expressed as the balance of ΔGinteraction against the always-favorable free-energy of mixing, ΔGmixing. Solution formation is favorable if ΔGsolution is less than zero, whereas it is unfavorable if ΔGsolution is greater than zero. In short, for a solution to form and complete dissolution to take place, the Gibbs energy change must be...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 14, 2026

Flash NanoPrecipitation for the Encapsulation of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Compounds in Polymeric Nanoparticles

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Polar solvents decrease the viscosity of high concentration IgG1 solutions through hydrophobic solvation and

Tim J Kamerzell¹, Amanda L Pace, Megan Li

¹Department of Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, A Member of the Roche Group, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA. tkamerzell@kumc.edu

Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences

|January 30, 2013

Summary

Polar solvents effectively reduce high-concentration protein solution viscosity for subcutaneous injections. This research explored protein structure and safety, confirming cosolvent feasibility for pharmaceutical formulations.

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Area of Science:

Pharmaceutical Science
Biochemistry
Physical Chemistry

Background:

High-concentration protein formulations for subcutaneous injection face viscosity challenges.
Achieving adequate bioavailability and efficacy often necessitates high protein concentrations, leading to increased solution viscosity above 150 mg/mL.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the use of polar solvents for reducing the viscosity of high-concentration protein formulations.
To characterize the impact of polar solvents on protein structure and protein-solvent interactions.
To assess the safety and feasibility of these cosolvents for subcutaneous pharmaceutical applications.

Main Methods:

Utilized differential scanning calorimetry to measure the thermodynamic preferential interaction parameter (Γ23).
Employed Fourier transform infrared, Raman, and second-derivative UV spectroscopy to analyze protein structure.
Evaluated hemolytic potential and postdose toxicity in rats.

Main Results:

Polar solvents were found to reduce solution viscosity in high-concentration immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) formulations.
Spectroscopic analyses provided mechanistic insights into protein-solvent interactions.
Cosolvents demonstrated acceptable hemolytic potential and low toxicity in preclinical rat models.

Conclusions:

Polar solvents represent a viable strategy for mitigating viscosity issues in high-concentration protein subcutaneous formulations.
The characterized protein-solvent interactions and safety profiles support the use of these cosolvents in pharmaceutical development.
This approach enhances the feasibility of developing low-volume, high-efficacy subcutaneous protein therapeutics.