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Updated: May 14, 2026

Three-Dimensional Mapping of the Rotation of Interactive Virtual Objects with Eye-Tracking Data
Published on: October 18, 2024
Understanding spatial transformations: similarities and differences between mental rotation and mental folding
Justin Harris1, Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, Nora S Newcombe
1Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA. jharris@mos.org
Abstract:
Mental rotation and mental folding, two widely used measures of spatial ability, both require the dynamic spatial transformation of objects with respect to their internal spatial structure. Traditionally, however, these two skills have been considered quite distinct, based primarily on factor analyses of psychometric data. This paper reviews the similarities and differences between mental rotation and mental folding from a variety of perspectives, including their definitions, component cognitive processes, neurological bases, developmental trajectories, malleability, predictive validity, and psychometric properties. We conclude that mental rotation and mental folding are similar in many respects. However, the tasks differ in whether they require rigid or non-rigid transformations of objects. In addition, mental rotation shows robust sex-related differences whereas mental folding does not. We also identify specific questions for which research is lacking.
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